By the middle of the 12th century, 15 small and large principalities were formed in Kievan Rus. By the beginning of the 13th century their number had increased to 50. The collapse of the state had not only a negative result (weakening before the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols), but also a positive result.

Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation

In individual principalities and fiefdoms, rapid growth of cities began, and trade relations with the Baltic states and the Germans began to form and develop. Changes in local culture were also noticeable: chronicles were created, new buildings were erected, etc.

Large regions of the country

The state had several large principalities. These, in particular, can be considered Chernigovskoe, Kyiv, Severskoe. However, the largest were considered to be three in the southwest, and the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities in the northeast. These were the main political centers of the state at that time. It is worth noting that they all had their own distinctive features. Next, let's talk about what were the features of the Novgorod principality.

General information

The origins from which the development of the Novgorod principality began are still not entirely clear. The oldest mention of the main city of the region dates back to the year 859. However, it is assumed that at that time the chroniclers did not use weather records (they appeared by the 10-11th century), but collected those legends that were most popular among the people. After Rus' adopted the Byzantine tradition of composing tales, authors had to compose stories, independently estimating dates, before weather records began. Of course, such dating is far from accurate, so it should not be completely trusted.

Principality of Novgorod Land

What this region was like means “new called fortified settlements surrounded by walls. Archaeologists found three settlements located on the territory occupied by the Novgorod principality. The geographical location of these areas is indicated in one of the chronicles. According to information, the region was located on the left bank of the Volkhov ( where the Kremlin is now located).

Over time, the settlements merged into one. The inhabitants built a common fortress. It was named Novgorod. Researcher Nosov developed the already existing point of view that the historical predecessor of the new city was Gorodishche. It was located slightly higher, not far from the sources of the Volkhov. Judging by the chronicles, Gorodishche was a fortified settlement. The princes of the Novgorod principality and their governors stayed there. Local historians even made a rather bold assumption that Rurik himself lived in the residence. Taking all this into account, it can be argued that the Principality of Novgorod originated from this settlement. The geographical location of the Settlement can be considered an additional argument. It stood on the Baltic-Volga route and was considered at that time a fairly large trade, craft and military-administrative point.

Characteristics of the Novgorod Principality

In the first centuries of its existence, the settlement was small (by modern standards). Novgorod was completely made of wood. It was located on two sides of the river, which was quite a unique phenomenon, since settlements were usually located on a hill and on one bank. The first inhabitants built their houses near the water, but not close to it, due to fairly frequent floods. The streets of the city were built perpendicular to Volkhov. A little later they were connected by “breakout” lanes that ran parallel to the river. The walls of the Kremlin rose from the left bank. At that time it was much smaller than the one that stands in Novgorod now. On the other bank, in the Slovenian village, there were estates and a princely court.

Russian chronicles

The Principality of Novgorod is mentioned quite little in the records. However, this little information is of particular value. The chronicle, dated 882, talks about something from Novgorod. As a result, two large East Slavic tribes united: the Polyans and the Ilmen Slavs. It was from that time that the history of the Old Russian state began. Records from 912 indicate that the Principality of Novgorod paid the Scandinavians 300 hryvnia a year to maintain peace.

Records of other peoples

The Novgorod principality is also mentioned in Byzantine chronicles. For example, Emperor Constantine VII wrote about the Russians in the 10th century. The Principality of Novgorod also appears in the Scandinavian sagas. The earliest legends appeared from the reign of the sons of Svyatoslav. After his death, a power struggle broke out between his two sons Oleg and Yaropolk. In 977, a battle took place. As a result, Yaropolk defeated Oleg’s troops and became the Grand Duke, installing his mayors in Novgorod. There was also a third brother. But fearing being killed, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia. However, his absence was relatively short-lived. In 980, he returned to the Principality of Novgorod with hired Varangians. Then he defeated the mayors and moved towards Kyiv. There Vladimir overthrew Yaropolk from the throne and became the Prince of Kyiv.

Religion

A description of the Novgorod principality will be incomplete without talking about the importance of faith in the life of the people. In 989 baptism took place. First it was in Kyiv, and then in Novgorod. Power increased due to the Christian religion and its monotheism. The church organization was built on a hierarchical principle. It became a powerful tool for the formation of Russian statehood. In the year of baptism, Joachim Korsunian (Byzantine priest) was sent to Novgorod. But, it must be said that Christianity did not immediately take root. Many residents were in no hurry to part with the faith of their ancestors. According to archaeological excavations, many pagan rituals survived until the 11th-13th centuries. And, for example, Maslenitsa is still celebrated today. Although this holiday is given a somewhat Christian overtone.

Yaroslav's activities

After Vladimir became the prince of Kyiv, he sent his son Vysheslav to Novgorod, and after his death - Yaroslav. The name of the latter is associated with an attempt to get rid of the influence of Kyiv. So, in 1014, Yaroslav refused to pay tribute. Vladimir, having learned about this, began to gather a squad, but during the preparation he suddenly died. Svyatopolk the Accursed ascended the throne. He killed his brothers: Svyatoslav Drevlyansky and Gleb and Boris, who were later canonized. Yaroslav was in a rather difficult position. On the one hand, he was absolutely not against seizing power in Kyiv. But on the other hand, his squad was not strong enough. Then he decided to address the Novgorodians with a speech. Yaroslav called on the people to capture Kyiv, thus returning to themselves everything that had been taken away in the form of tribute. The residents agreed, and after some time, in the battle of Lyubech, Svyatopolk was completely defeated and fled to Poland.

Further developments

In 1018, together with the squad of Boleslav (his father-in-law and the King of Poland), Svyatopolk returned to Rus'. In the battle, they thoroughly defeated Yaroslav (he fled with four warriors from the field). He wanted to go to Novgorod, and then planned to move to Scandinavia. But the residents did not let him do this. They chopped up all the boats, collected money and a new army, giving the prince the opportunity to continue fighting. At this time, confident that he was firmly seated on the throne, Svyatopolk quarreled with the Polish king. Deprived of support, he lost the battle on Alta. After the battle, Yaroslav sent the Novgorodians home, giving them special letters - “Truth” and “Charter”. They had to live by them. Over the next decades, the Principality of Novgorod also depended on Kyiv. First, Yaroslav sent his son Ilya as governor. Then he sent Vladimir, who founded the fortress in 1044. The following year, at his behest, construction began on a new stone cathedral instead of the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral (which burned down). Since that time, this temple has symbolized Novgorod spirituality.

Political system

It took shape gradually. There are two periods in history. In the first there was a feudal republic, where the prince ruled. And in the second, control belonged to the oligarchy. During the first period, all the main bodies of state power existed in the Novgorod principality. The Boyar Council and the Veche were considered the highest institutions. Executive power was vested in the thousand and princely courts, mayor, elders, volostels and volostel managers. The evening had special significance. It was considered the supreme power and had greater power here than in other principalities. The veche decided on issues of domestic and foreign policy, expelled or elected the ruler, townsman and other officials. It was also the highest court. Another body was the Council of Boyars. The entire city government system was concentrated in this body. The Council included: eminent boyars, elders, thousand, mayors, archbishop and prince. The power of the ruler himself was significantly limited in functions and scope, but at the same time, of course, occupied a leading place in the governing bodies. At first, the candidacy of the future prince was discussed at the Council of Boyars. After this, he was invited to sign the contract document. It regulated the legal and state status and responsibilities of the authorities in relation to the ruler. The prince lived with his court on the outskirts of Novgorod. The ruler did not have the right to make laws or proclaim war or peace. Together with the mayor, the prince commanded the army. The existing restrictions did not allow the rulers to gain a foothold in the city and put them in a controlled position.

Agriculture.

Agriculture played a primary role in the economy of the Novgorod Republic - medieval society was agrarian. The most important source of knowledge about agriculture is archaeology. Through a comprehensive study of grain, weed seeds and agricultural tools found during excavations, it was established that the level of development of agriculture in the Novgorod land was very high already in the 11th - 12th centuries.

Of the cultivated crops, the first place belonged to winter rye, as indicated by the predominance of winter weed seeds (the fact is that for each crop there are accompanying plants).

Wheat took second place in Novgorod agriculture. Judging by the seeds of spring weeds, in the 12th century, mainly spring wheat was grown in the Novgorod land. Barley and oats were sown to a much lesser extent than rye and wheat.

The appearance of winter rye is a sure sign of the formation of a free farming system. In conditions of old arable soils, the predecessor of a field with winter rye can only be a fallow field, which is the defining element of this system. One of its forms is two-field - alternating fallow and winter rye. Since it has been established that wheat was cultivated on the ancient Novgorod spring field, we can talk about the existence in the 12th century of a three-field crop rotation, most common under the fallow farming system. True, the swidden and shifting systems of agriculture, which had lost their former significance, still continued to exist, as well as some transitional forms of the fallow system, for example, variegated fields, when the crops of bread and fallow alternated without any order.

The agricultural technology used by ancient Novgorod farmers corresponded to the level of development of agriculture of that time. During excavations in Novgorod, openers were discovered, the design of which proves that they were used for cultivating cultivated old arable soils. In a cultural layer of the 13th century, a vomer of the so-called reinforced design was found, differing from the usual one in slightly smaller dimensions, greater thickness and a narrower working part. Such openers were intended for processing heavy soils and forest clearing. This means that the shifting system of agriculture had not yet disappeared by that time.

The land was cultivated with multi-pronged, often three-pronged, plows. The appearance of such plows was obviously associated with the transition to arable farming using draft power. The bread was harvested using sickles.

Closely connected with agriculture was cattle breeding, which also played an important role in the economy of the Novgorodians. If agriculture was the main occupation of the rural population of the Novgorod Republic, then city dwellers could also engage in cattle breeding. This is evidenced by archaeological data. In all layers of ancient Novgorod, uncovered by excavations, a huge number of animal bones were discovered. The widespread cultivation of cattle breeding in Novgorod is evidenced by a cultural layer richly saturated with manure. Novgorodians raised large and small cattle, pigs, and horses.

In addition to cattle breeding, both the rural and urban population of the Novgorod land were engaged in vegetable growing and fruit growing. Gardens and orchards were probably part of many city estates. In any case, seeds of vegetables and fruits are not a rare find during excavations. Cucumber seeds were discovered in the 13th century layers. It can also be assumed that cabbage was grown in ancient Novgorod - in the layers of the 13th century, strikers were found - hand tools for planting cabbage. Under 1215, the chronicle mentions turnips, which, apparently, were very common in Novgorod. Seeds of garden dill were discovered in layers of the 12th century.

The most common fruit tree was the cherry. Cherry pits are found very often during excavations, with the largest number in the layers of the 12th century. Apple trees were also grown in Novgorod.

Black currants and raspberries were grown from berry bushes, the seeds of which are often found during excavations.

Despite the fact that the agriculture of Veliky Novgorod was developed, as far as conditions allowed, it could not meet all the needs of the Novgorod population. As noted in the introduction, the scarcity of soil and the nature of the climate encouraged the Novgorodians to actively engage in crafts and trade. In addition, by producing goods, Novgorod could sell them to the West without intermediaries. Thus, the prerequisites for the development of crafts in the Novgorod Republic were quite significant.

The chronicles name the following craft specialties: shield maker, tanner, silver maker, boiler maker, oponnik, carnation maker, blacksmith. Silver artisans were called silversmiths. Shield makers, carnation makers and boiler makers were masters of various specialties in blacksmithing. Oponniks were called artisans who were engaged in a certain type of weaving (later they began to be called felt makers). Novgorodians achieved particular success in carpentry: they were known in Rus' as skilled carpenters.

At the end of the Brief Edition of Russian Pravda there is a so-called “lesson for bridge builders.” Mostniks were apparently the name given to builders of roadways or bridges. In the damp Novgorod climate, city streets without pavements would be impassable and impassable, especially in spring and autumn. The pavements were rebuilt approximately every 15 - 20 years, sometimes they were repaired, and thanks to this they lasted longer. Thus, bridge workers did not experience a shortage of work, and this specialty appeared early (the oldest Novgorod pavements date back to the middle of the 10th century). Quite often it was necessary to build bridges that constantly suffered from fires; even the Great Bridge across the Volkhov burned repeatedly. The great attention to the construction of pavements is evidenced by the so-called “Charter of Prince Yaroslav on bridges” dating back to the 60s of the 13th century, which talks about the obligation of Novgorodians to pave public areas of the city.

The craft professions mentioned in the chronicles do not exhaust all types of craft in ancient Novgorod; there were much more of them. It turned out to be possible to find out what the level of development of the craft was, how diverse the craft professions were, only after systematic archaeological work began to be carried out in Novgorod.

Excavations of Novgorod, which began in 1932 and continue to this day, showed that Novgorod was the largest craft center of its time. This conclusion was made based on the study of the remains of craft workshops uncovered by excavations and the products of Novgorod artisans. Of course, not all craft workshops left behind traces from which one can reliably establish what their inhabitants were doing. A craft workshop can be identified, first of all, by a large number of production residues, as well as by defective products, semi-finished products and tools. As a result of excavations carried out in different areas of the city, the remains of craft workshops were discovered. This indicates that the majority of the population of ancient Novgorod was engaged in various crafts.

The 12th century and the first half of the 13th century were the heyday of crafts in many ancient Russian cities. But the heavy burden of the Tatar yoke could not but affect the production spheres of Rus'. Many cities were destroyed, thousands of people, including artisans, were killed or taken into captivity. As a result of this, the craft fell into decline. Novgorod the Great escaped ruin by escaping with tribute.

However, if in a number of cities destroyed by the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the period preceding it turned out to be the time of the highest flowering of medieval crafts (the pre-Mongol level of handicraft production in these cities could not reach at a later time), then this cannot be said about Novgorod. The process of development of productive forces in the Novgorod feudal republic was not interrupted, and in the second half of the 13th century they continued to develop in an ascending line. Novgorod craft, like Novgorod itself, reached its peak in the 14th century.

The high level of ironworking production contributed to the progress of many other crafts that could not have developed successfully without the appropriate tools. Based on the study of various tools, it can be argued that in Novgorod, in addition to masters of various blacksmith specialties, mechanics, turners, joiners, carpenters, woodworkers, woodcarvers, bone carvers, tanners, shoemakers, tailors, and jewelers worked. The study of a huge number of household items and other finished products, as well as semi-finished and defective products, helps to supplement the list of specialties of Novgorod artisans. Noteworthy is the wide variety of both finished products and tools.

Obviously, artisans in Novgorod specialized in the production of certain types of products. Moreover, sometimes the same master was engaged in different types of craft. A shoemaker, for example, was also a tanner for a long time, which is confirmed by joint finds of remains of both productions. Only in the 12th - 13th centuries did the shoemaking craft separate from the tanning craft. The shield maker, in addition to knowledge of blacksmithing, had to have skills in processing copper, wood and leather, since shields were made from all these materials. But at the same time, a narrow specialization developed in the blacksmith’s craft (nail makers, lock makers, etc.).

A variety of metal jewelry: bracelets, rings, brooches, pendants, beads were made by highly qualified jewelers. It has been established that most of the jewelry discovered during excavations in Novgorod is a product locally produced. This is confirmed by finds of jewelry workshops, tools and semi-finished products. Master jewelers mastered a number of complex technical techniques: casting, free forging, drawing, rolling, embossing, chasing, engraving, soldering, gilding, champlevé enamel, heat treatment of copper and bronze.

A huge number of remnants of leather shoes and scraps of leather is evidence of the widespread use of shoemaking in Novgorod.

Pottery production was also developed. The most common finds during excavations are numerous fragments of pottery.

Weaving received significant development in ancient Novgorod. During excavations, many scraps of various fabrics were discovered in all layers. Based on a study of textile samples, it was established that until the middle of the 13th century, the main production tool was a vertical loom, but a more productive horizontal loom was also known in Novgorod, as evidenced by the finds of its parts. Weavers made fabrics from ready-made yarn, linen and wool. Spinning in Novgorod has been known since the earliest times (during excavations, many wooden spindles, flax carders, flappers, spindle whorls, and spinning wheels were found).

Craftsmen involved in wood processing also made up a very large group of Novgorod craftsmen. The huge variety of wooden products discovered during excavations (spoons, ladles, bowls, carved vessels, disks, dishes) speaks of high level development of woodworking craft. In addition to turning tools, parts of a lathe were found. Often found are blank spoons, unfinished and damaged wooden ladles, bowls, and tops.

Combs, knife handles, various jewelry, piercings, checkers, chess pieces, buttons, etc. were most often made from bone. Processed pieces of bone, sawn pieces of horn, and semi-finished combs were found in all Novgorod layers. The technique of bone processing was high, as evidenced by the finds of both high-quality bone products themselves and the tools with which they were made.

A large group of finds in Novgorod consists of glass items, and, first of all, fragments of glass bracelets. Until recently, it was believed that the vast majority of bracelets were made in the workshops of ancient Kyiv, from where they were distributed throughout Rus'. The existence of local production of bracelets in Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk and other cities was only assumed.

Using data from archaeological excavations, researchers have established that Novgorod had its own bracelet production (in addition to Kyiv imports) and that it appeared in pre-Mongol times. It was also established that initially Novgorod bracelets were made from lead-silica glass, which in its composition did not differ from the glass known in other cities, but it always contained antimony oxide as a microimpurity. The emergence of its own production of bracelets in Novgorod is associated with the resettlement of bracelet makers from Kyiv, who could not withstand the competition in their homeland. The first bracelets appeared in Novgorod around the middle of the 12th century. In addition, during excavations, bracelets made of potassium-lead-silica glass were found.

At the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there were already two glassmaking schools in Novgorod. Glassmakers of the first school melted lead-silica glass and made green, yellow and brown bracelets from it. The masters of the second school brewed potassium-lead-silica glass and made from it bracelets of all colors known in Rus', while producing mainly turquoise, violet and blue bracelets, which their competitors, the glassmakers of the first school, could not make. This indicates a certain specialization in bracelet production.

Some craft professions have to be judged only by insignificant material finds. A number of specialties did not leave behind archaeological traces at all.

These include bread makers, kalachniks, and various specialized tailors, which we can learn about from scribe books of the 16th century and which obviously existed in an earlier time, since the need for their products existed before.

Trade.

Trade played an important role in the economy of ancient Russian cities. Russian merchants traded with the Baltic states and the Arab East, with Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe. Even in pre-Mongol times, a number of large handicraft and shopping centers, of which Novgorod stood out in the north. The products of artisans had to find markets, and not only in the city itself, but also in nearby districts and in more distant places. If at first the artisan was also a merchant, then later a special class of merchants emerged. Merchants specialized in trade, so the emergence of this class contributed to the development of external and internal trade relations.

Trade ties within the Novgorod land undoubtedly existed for a long time, and they arose earlier than foreign trade ties, but it is quite difficult to trace them due to the extreme paucity of chronicle reports. The village was of little interest to the city chronicler, and other cities were mentioned by him only in connection with some important political events. Archaeologically, these connections are also almost impossible to trace, since it is impossible to determine the difference between many locally produced items made in different cities Novgorod land, for example, with iron knives made in Novgorod, Pskov or Russa.

One can only distinguish objects made by rural artisans from products of highly skilled urban craftsmen.

In Novgorod, as in the ancient Russian village in general, subsistence farming dominated. The basic needs of the rural population were satisfied within their own households, and they received the things needed in the household and everyday life, as a rule, from rural artisans. Only high-quality steel tools, weapons, some types of jewelry, and jewelry had to be purchased in the city. Exchange in rural areas most likely occurred in its simplest form, when a blacksmith (or other rural artisan) received meat, grain, fish, etc. for his products.

Agricultural products came from the village to the city for sale and were sold for money. The purchase and sale took place “at the auction”, the city market, which was in every city. Here prices for goods were usually set, fluctuating depending on various circumstances, mainly depending on harvests and crop failures. The chronicle repeatedly indicates an increase in prices, mainly for bread, during famine years.

Sometimes frosts or rains, which caused another crop failure, did not cover the entire territory of the Novgorod land. In such cases, Novgorod received bread from Torzhok or from other regions of the Novgorod Republic. The supply of bread was often influenced by the political situation. So, in the lean year of 1215, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was sitting in Torzhok, who was in conflict with the Novgorodians, who “do not let anything into the city.” Bread prices at the Novgorod market, of course, rose.

During the famine years, bread was so expensive that many were simply unable to buy it. Part of the population, fleeing hunger, left Novgorod for other lands.

Residents of Novgorod raised livestock, which was also a subject of trade.

Numerous products of highly skilled city blacksmiths were also sold at the auction. Knives, keys, locks, and axes were in constant demand among the population. Thus, the activities of Novgorod artisans were primarily aimed at meeting the needs of the residents of Novgorod itself and surrounding areas.

Foreign trade relations of Novgorod were extensive. They can be judged from both archaeological and written sources. Several documents characterizing trade relations between Novgorod and the West have survived to this day. One of such documents is the treaty letter of Novgorod with the Gothic coast, Lübeck and German cities (1139 - 1199).

Novgorod's main partners in Western trade in the 12th - 13th centuries were Gotland, Denmark and Lubeck.

In the middle of the 12th century. in Novgorod there already existed a trading court of Gotlandic merchants with the church of St. Olaf.

Russian merchants on Gotland also had their own courtyards and a church, which was apparently built by the Novgorodians. This is evidenced by the frescoes of the Gotlandic church, which are almost completely similar to the frescoes of one of the Novgorod churches.

The city of Visby on Gotland in the 12th century was the center of trading activity throughout the Baltic basin. It was nominally dependent on Sweden. In 1170 - 1270, when a colony of German merchants from Westphalia firmly settled there, Visby reached its heyday.

And although the Gotlandic merchants during this period were also Germans, in order to distinguish them from the German merchants from mainland German cities, the Russians called them Goths or Varangians. The Germans mentioned in the chronicle under 1188 (this is their first mention) should be considered Swedes: since we are talking about Swedish cities, their inhabitants, obviously, should be Swedes. Usually the Swedes were called “Swei”.

At the end of the 80s of the 12th century, Novgorod established trade relations with Lubeck. Having appeared in Novgorod, German merchants also created their own court and built the Church of St. Petra. In 1187, Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa granted Lübeck a charter, which granted Russian and other merchants the right to duty-free trade in Lübeck. This suggests the existence of a permanent Russian (most likely Novgorod) colony in Lübeck. Trade with Lubeck and German cities developed very intensively at the end of the 13th century. acquired paramount importance, the Danes and Goths were relegated to the background.

The composition of imports from Western Europe to Novgorod is not easy to establish. We know almost no written sources. Of the archaeological materials, only amber can be named with certainty. Amber products in Novgorod are very numerous (more than 2000 copies). Amber was most often brought to Novgorod in unprocessed form and processed here by local artisans. The smallest number of amber finds were collected in the layers of the 13th century.

Moreover, amber was imported to Novgorod not only from the Baltic states, but also from the Dnieper region, where there were also deposits of it. A sharp reduction in the import of amber in the 13th century. is explained by the fact that as a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the delivery of goods to Novgorod along the Dnieper route ceased. Amber was also not imported from the Baltic states at this time, since throughout the entire 13th century Novgorod was in hostile relations with the Teutonic Order. In the early 40s, there was a war between them, during which trade relations with the Baltic states were completely stopped.

Among the items imported from the West are jewelry (however, very few).

Some types of fabrics were also imported to Novgorod, primarily cloth. It has been established that in the 12th century, high-quality English fabrics predominated in Novgorod imports. However, in the 13th century, Flemish fabrics also appeared, which subsequently completely captured the local market. In addition to cloth, expensive Byzantine fabrics - pavoloka - were also imported to Novgorod. In 1228, pavoloka was mentioned among the gifts that the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich brought to Pskov.

In the XII-XIII centuries, jewelry craft reached a high level in Novgorod. A large amount of copper was found in a number of workshops in the form of finished products, semi-finished products, production waste, ingots and simply pieces of ground. It is known that copper was not mined on the territory of the Novgorod land. Therefore, we had to import it from abroad. Metal in the form of raw materials was supplied to Novgorod by Gothic and German (Lübeck) merchants, independent of the Teutonic Order. The trade in non-ferrous metals was not hindered by hostile relations between Novgorod and the Order.

In the first half of the 13th century. in northern Europe, in the Baltic region, salt trade began to develop. Novgorod participated in it as a buyer. Of all imported goods, salt was the most widely consumed item. It was not only a necessary food product, but also large quantities used in leather making.

Foreign trade of the Novgorod Republic was not limited to the western direction; it was also carried out with southern countries. Archaeological data suggest that in the XII - XIII centuries. Novgorod was connected by trade relations with the North Caucasus, Central Asia, Iran and, perhaps, with Byzantium. This is evidenced by finds of clearly southern origin. Walnut shells were discovered during excavations in various layers of different times. The largest number of finds comes from the 12th century, and starting from the 40s of the 13th century. Walnut shells are rare. Almond finds are rare. Both walnuts and almonds could be imported from Byzantium, Crimea or the Caucasus.

Products made from boxwood are imported. Boxwood is a southern tree, it still grows in Black Sea coast Caucasus. It was apparently imported to Novgorod by the Volga or Dnieper route. Boxwood combs, which existed in Novgorod for five centuries, are found during excavations, most often in layers of the 13th century. and very rarely - in the layers of the 12th century. At this time, the struggle between the Russian principalities and the Polovtsians intensified, which made it difficult for merchants to move along the Volga trade route. Boxwood wood was brought to Novgorod in unprocessed form, and the combs were made by local artisans. This conclusion was made on the basis of the absolute similarity of boxwood combs in shape and size with some types of bone combs of local Novgorod production. In addition, the cutting technique for many wood and bone combs is absolutely identical. Not only combs were made from boxwood. In the layers of the 13th century. A small round boxwood box was found, the internal cavity of which had not yet been carved. Obviously, this is a semi-finished product, for some reason not processed to the end, discarded or lost by the Novgorod master. Frequent finds of boxwood combs in Novgorod indicate that they were ordinary household items that any city resident could buy, and not luxury items available only to wealthy people.

In general, it was luxury goods that were most often imported from distant countries to Rus'. In the pre-Mongol layers of ancient Novgorod, fragments of expensive imported glazing vessels were discovered at that time. It was used only by wealthy circles of Novgorod society.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. White clay earthenware with a white opaque glaze and painted with cobalt (blue) and manganese (lilac-violet) was brought to Novgorod. These were, as a rule, bowls and dishes decorated with motifs in combination with geometric ones. Birds were often depicted on the inside bottom, and the walls near the rim were decorated with oblique wide parallel lines. In the layer of the second half of the 12th century. a part of a luster dish with an Arabic inscription was found.

The center of production of glazed earthenware ceramics with luster and cobalt painting was Iran. Novgorod specimens are also undoubtedly of Iranian origin. The latest finds of such dishes date back to before 1240. From the middle of the 13th century, only Golden Horde glazed ceramics are found. This suggests that since the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the import of Iranian dishes into Rus' ceased, since the Tatar-Mongol state formed on the Volga - the Golden Horde - began to control the Volga trade route, the importance of which fell.

One of the items of Russian import has long been various spices, which were in wide demand. Wine was also imported from the West and the East. Findings of Greek sponges indicate connections with the Mediterranean.

Rus' exported its goods to various countries. Unfortunately, we have almost no sources indicating the composition of Novgorod exports. The chronicles sometimes report on the adventures of Novgorod merchants returning “from across the sea.” Obviously, they did not go for overseas goods empty-handed, but also brought their own goods, which they traded “overseas.”

What were these goods? First of all, fur. Novgorod land has long been famous for its hunting grounds. Furs were highly valued abroad, both in the East and in Europe, and were the most important item of Russian export. According to the testimony of Arab writers, Rus' supplied furs from beavers, black foxes, sables, squirrels and other fur-bearing animals.

Furs came to Novgorod in the form of tribute, which the Novgorodians took from the northern tribes under their control.

Among the goods exported from Novgorod abroad was wax. Candles were made from it, the demand for which was great in Christian countries. In addition, wax was widely used in crafts, in particular in jewelry (casting from a wax model). Wax began to be exported back in pre-Mongol times - a corporation of wax merchants existed in Novgorod, apparently already in the 12th century. In the Novgorod land itself, bee farming was less developed than in North-Eastern Rus', so Novgorod, although it traded its wax, primarily played the role of a transit center in the trade of wax imported from neighboring principalities.

In the economy of the Novgorod Republic, as elsewhere in Ancient Rus', the most important components were agriculture and cattle breeding. Agriculture in the Novgorod land was highly developed already in the 11th-12th centuries. Among agricultural crops, the cultivation of winter rye was in first place. Wheat took second place.

Cattle breeding was closely connected with agriculture, which played an important role in the economy. Cattle breeding was carried out not only by village residents but also by city dwellers. Divorced. primarily large and small cattle, horses and pigs.

In the city and in the villages they were engaged in vegetable growing and fruit growing.

The level of agricultural development in Novgorod in the 12th-13th centuries was at the level achieved by that time in Rus' and other countries.

The development of crafts in Novgorod was at a high level. There were many craftsmen of various blacksmith specialties, as well as mechanics and turners. Joiners, carpenters, woodcarvers, bone carvers, tanners, shoemakers, tailors, jewelers and other craftsmen also worked. Pottery production was seriously developed.

Weaving received a high level of development in ancient Novgorod.

Both the vertical and the more advanced horizontal loom were used. Fabrics were made from linen and wool yarn.

A significant part of the archaeological finds in Novgorod are glass products, which indicates the presence of glass production.

Ancient Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries had significant handicraft production. Novgorod artisans had a high level of technical skills in various areas of production, primarily in metal processing.

Diversified handicraft gave rise to various narrow specialties within the branches of craft. From the point of view of the technical level and scale of handicraft production, Novgorod was on a par with the cities of medieval Western Europe.

In ancient Russian villages, including Novgorod, subsistence farming prevailed. Things needed for the household and everyday life were purchased mainly from rural artisans.

Only more complex steel tools, weapons, certain types of jewelry, and jewelry were bought in the city.

Agricultural products, sold for money, went to the city from the village for sale.

Trade was carried out at the city market, called “torg”, and existed in every city. Prices for goods may vary due to various reasons. Mainly, they depended on the level of harvest.

In case of shortage of crops in certain places of the Novgorod land, bread came from Torzhok or other regions of the Novgorod Republic. Cattle were also traded.

The products of city blacksmiths and other artisans were sold at auction.

Trade relations played an important role in the life of Novgorod society. Trade in handicraft products prevailed on the domestic market. It was stable in nature, in contrast to trade with foreign countries and other Russian lands.

Trade exchange between Novgorod and its rural periphery took place within the boundaries of the feudal subsistence economy. The main intensity of internal trade relations was determined by the level of development of crafts. The development and specialization of handicraft production and division of labor intensified trade exchanges.

Novgorod had extensive foreign trade relations.

The main partners of Novgorod in trade in the west in the XII-XIII centuries. there were Gotland, Denmark and Lubeck. Already in the first half of the 12th century. Novgorod ships sailed “overseas”.

In the middle of the 12th century there was a Gotlandic trading court in Novgorod. Where was the church of St. Olaf. On Gotland, Russian merchants had their own courtyards and church.

At the end of the 80s of the 12th century, trade relations between Novgorod and Lubeck arose. Gradually, it began to actively develop with Lubeck and German cities and by the end of the 13th century it almost replaced trade relations with the Danes and Goths.

The imported items were primarily fabrics, mainly cloth. Some types of fabrics were also imported to Novgorod, primarily cloth. Fabrics came from England, Flanders, and Byzantium.

Gothic and German (Lübeck) merchants imported copper to Novgorod. The Novgorodians did not have their own copper, but they needed it for the production of jewelry, which was developed at a high level in Novgorod.

Salt, boxwood products, as well as boxwood wood, expensive earthenware and other luxury items, spices, and wine were imported to Novgorod from different countries. Novgorod exported its goods to different countries, primarily furs. The Novgorodians received furs in the form of tribute, which they took from the northern tribes (Ugra, Pechora, etc.) subject to them.

Wax was also a significant item of Novgorod export.

The high economic, political and cultural level of the Novgorod state, the increase in its power, and its favorable geographical location on waterways turned Novgorod into one of the most important centers of foreign trade in Ancient Rus'.

Most written sources constantly mention various sums of money. To understand how large the amounts of quitrents and fines were, how high the prices for agricultural products, handicrafts, and luxury goods were, it is necessary first of all to know the ratio of monetary units to each other.

In the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries there was no money, in the modern sense, in Novgorod. Large bars of silver were in circulation throughout these three centuries. They were called silver hryvnias and rubles. Basic monetary unit was a hryvnia of silver - an oblong block of high-grade silver, weighing about 200 grams.

Naturally, such large bars were used only for large payments. The role of small money was played by various goods - squirrel skins, jewelry, etc.

A silver hryvnia contained 4 hryvnia kuns, which were divided into 20 nogat, or 50 rezan, or 150 veveritsa.

Such a monetary system was widespread in the 11th-12th centuries throughout the territory of Ancient Rus'.

The introduction of a new counting system was the main reform of the Novgorod monetary system.

The reform of the monetary system in Novgorod occurred on the verge of the 12th and 13th centuries. In the 13th century, the hryvnia of silver was divided into 15 hryvnias from nogat, or 105 nogat. At the end of the 13th century, the ruble came into circulation.

The Novgorod land or principality occupied the north of Rus' from the Baltic to the Ural mountain range. The capital of the principality was the city of Novgorod. Among major cities Torzhok, Pskov, Staraya Russa and others occupied an important place.

The first information about the emergence of the principality dates back to 859. The capital was formed as a result of the union of three settlements. The Rurikovichs were the first to reign here. Under their rule, Novgorod Rus' was formed.
At the end of the 10th century, Novgorodians refused to accept the Christian faith. The city was forcibly baptized, as a result many residents died, and Novgorod itself was burned.

In the 11th century, the principality was attacked twice by the Polotsk rulers Izyaslavichs. In 1088, the young Mstislav was sent to reign. Together with him, posadniks chosen by the community ruled in Novgorod and its suburbs.

In the 30s of the 12th century, political violence intensified in Rus'. The Kyiv princes stopped supporting the Novgorod government. The then prince Vsevolod was expelled from the city and was forced to enter into an agreement with eminent townspeople, which limited his rights. He was later taken into custody and again expelled from the city.

After this, a republican type of government was established on Novgorod land (). The Novgorodians themselves called upon those whom they considered necessary to reign. Several times they undertook military campaigns in the northeast of Rus'.

At the end of the 12th century, the Suzdal princes attacked the republic. However, the Novgorodians were able to resist and won this battle.

During the Mongol yoke, part of the principality was devastated. And in 1478, the Novgorod land was subordinated to Moscow and became part of the Russian Kingdom.

Characteristics of the political system

The greatest power in Novgorod belonged to veche. This was the name of the people's assembly, which decided on pressing political and economic issues and played the role of the highest judicial body. It consisted of all adult men. The Veche resolved problems of foreign policy, elected and expelled princes, appointed mayors and other persons.

Another body of supreme power was the Boyar Council. It included the entire city management system. The composition included:

• boyars of noble families;
• elders - officials in charge of economic issues, food and trade;
• posadniki - civilian dignitaries responsible for foreign policy issues, court and internal affairs of the principality;
• thousand - leaders of the militia, their duties included collecting taxes;
• archbishop - head of the Novgorod church.

The prince's power was limited. His candidacy was first discussed at the Council of Boyars, after which an agreement was signed. The princes with their families and court lived in the Novgorod suburbs.

In fact, the princes played the role of defenders from external enemies, but had no influence on the internal affairs of the republic.

During the years of republican rule, the position of archbishop was elective. After joining the Moscow kingdom, he was appointed by the Moscow metropolitan.

Rulers

During the existence of the Novgorod Republic, princes were replaced 58 times. The greatest influence on history were:

1. Mstislav the Great.
2. Ivan Kalita.

During the period of republican rule, princes were invited from Suzdal, Vladimir, Moscow or the Principality of Lithuania.

In 1499, the son of Tsar Ivan 3, Vasily, was proclaimed Prince of Novgorod and Pskov.

Economy

The geographical location of Novgorod made it unsuitable for agriculture. At the same time, it was located at the intersection of important trade routes.

This contributed to the development of trade and crafts.

Among the industries developed were:

• hunting and fishing;
• salt making;
• production of weapons and pottery.
• iron smelting.

Trade was carried out with adjacent territories - the Volga region, the Baltic states, cities of Germany and Scandinavia. Relations were also established with the Caucasus and Byzantium.

Meaning for Rus'

It served as the source of Russian statehood. Thanks to its vast territories and unique location, it served as a link between the countries of Western Europe and Byzantium.

Scheme

Map: Territorial location of Novgorod land

This Eastern European state, ruled by the boyar elite, included lands from the Urals to the Baltic Sea, from the White Sea to the Western Dvina.

Territorial division

The entire territory of the Novgorod state was divided into five ends. Each end was divided into a suburb and a pyatina and was governed by a posadnik. In turn, each pyatina was divided into several volosts, and the volost into several graveyards.

In the administrative division of the territory of the medieval Novgorod state there were five levels: ends, Pyatina, volosts and graveyards.

Authorities and management

The highest state body of the Novgorod Republic was the veche. The prince, the squad, and the church obeyed his decisions. Each city end had its own council, which resolved local issues. At the end of the evening, the headmen of the ends and streets were appointed.

The Novgorod princely republic had a complex political structure that distributed the powers of the prince, the veche and government officials.

Social system of the Novgorod and Pskov states

The “best people” of Novgorod and Pskov were considered to be boyars, landowners, clergy and “living people”. Merchants, traders and artisans made up a semblance of the middle class. Peasants and serfs remained the most disenfranchised sections of society.

The societies of the republics of Northwestern Rus' had a complex stratification. The differences in the structure of society in Novgorod and Pskov were insignificant.

References

1. Froyanov I. Ya. Ancient Rus' of the 9th-13th centuries. Popular movements. Princely and veche power. M.: Russian Publishing Center, 2012.
2. CM. Soloviev. History of Russia since ancient times http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/history/solov/solv05p1.htm
3. N.I. Kostomarov. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/history/kostomar/kostom02.htm

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Novgorod land

From the very beginning of the history of Rus', the Novgorod land played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional farming practice of the Slavs, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not provide much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was profit from the sale of trade products - beekeeping, hunting fur and sea animals.

The annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals was important for Novgorod. Novgorod maritime and forestry industries brought enormous wealth.

Trade ties of Novgorod with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, strengthened from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Items imported to Rus' were cloth, weapons, metals, etc.

But despite the size of the territory of the Novgorod land, it was distinguished by a low level of population density and a relatively small number of cities compared to other Russian lands.

The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political isolation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. The princes in Novgorod retained exclusively official functions. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of lands in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the properties determined for their service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the 12th century. The Grand Duke of Vladimir was formally considered the Prince of Novgorod, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod.

The highest governing body of Novgorod was evening, real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three to four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of the power over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages from under their control.

Elections to positions were carried out from the environment and under the control of the boyars mayor ( head of the city administration) and Tysyatsky ( head of the militia). Under boyar influence, the post of head of the church was replaced - archbishop. The archbishop was in charge of the treasury of the republic, the external relations of Novgorod, the law of court, etc. The city was divided into 3 (later 5) parts - “ends”, whose trade and craft representatives, along with the boyars, took a noticeable part in the management of the Novgorod land. After the uprising of 1136, a boyar republic was formed in Novgorod Rus', dominated by large feudal lords. The archbishop played the largest role in the political life of Novgorod. The boyar council met under his chairmanship. From among the boyars, the mayor and the thousand were appointed at the veche, who exercised executive power in the city.

The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, these movements, as a rule, did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.

The historical isolation of Novgorod from other Russian lands had important political consequences. Novgorod was reluctant to participate in all-Russian affairs, in particular, the payment of tribute to the Mongols.

Novgorod-Pskov land

The main occupation of the Novgorod peasantry was agriculture, the technology of which had reached a significant level for that time. However, soil and climatic conditions were not favorable for the development of agriculture, and it could not satisfy the needs of the population. Along with agriculture, various crafts developed: hunting fur-bearing and sea animals, fishing, and salt mining. Iron mining played a major role in the occupations of the rural population. Novgorod was one of the largest craft and trade centers in Europe.

In their struggle against the boyars, the city's artisan population won certain rights. The associations of konchans (residents of urban areas - the ends of Goncharny, Plotnitsky, etc.), ulichans (residents of the streets) and merchant fraternities became a major force. Each end had its own elected self-government and had some power over a certain territory of the Novgorod region. But these authorities remained under the control of the boyars. Princely power was also preserved in Novgorod. But the princes were invited by the veche and their rights were very limited, although they received certain income from administration, court and trade.

The first 100 years (1136-1236) of the existence of the Novgorod boyar republic, right up to the Mongol invasion, were characterized by acute class struggle, which more than once resulted in open uprisings of the urban poor and peasants. At the same time, the role of the merchants increased, some of which sided with the powerful Vladimir-Suzdal princes.

The Vladimir-Suzdal princes strengthened their positions in Novgorod. They seized lands here, appropriated the rights of court and collection of taxes. Novgorod's resistance to the policies of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes led to repeated clashes, the consequences of which had a heavy impact on the position of the masses. It was especially difficult for the Novgorodians when there were interruptions in the supply of Volga grain. When in 1230, a lean year, a severe famine broke out in the Novgorod land, the Vladimir prince closed trade routes, and the boyars and merchants began speculating in grain. Driven to despair, the poor began to set fire to the houses of rich people who stored rye and seize these supplies.

Favorable trade and economic conditions for the development of Novgorod also determined the features of its political system. It was not a monarchy, as in Kievan Rus and the Russian principalities of the 12th-13th centuries, but a feudal republic, similar to the Italian city-states of Venice, Genoa, and Florence. This was an exceptional case in Russian history at that time.

A feature of Novgorod history can be considered the fact that the city on the Volkhov and its lands were not subjected to defeat by the Mongol-Tatar conquerors. Although the republic paid a heavy tribute to the Golden Horde, its history and culture were not interrupted by the invasion.

Until recently, historians believed that the republican system in the Novgorod Republic was established on May 28, 1136, when the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from the city. However, according to historians V.L. Yanina, B.A. Rybakova, V.F. Andreev, republican order in the Novgorod land began to be established at the end of the 11th century, and the first expelled prince was Gleb Svyatoslavich, who came out in defense of the bishop in 1078, when a sorcerer appeared in Novgorod, supported by the entire city. The prince killed the sorcerer, and the Novgorodians drove him out of the city. He became the first exile. For about two centuries, according to V.B. Kobrin, about 40 people visited the Novgorod throne, some princes occupied the throne several times.

The Novgorod nobility largely predetermined the candidacies of the princes sent from Kyiv. So, in 1102, the boyars refused to accept the son of the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk, declaring with a threat to the latter: “If your son had two heads, then they ate him.”

Novgorod land feudal boyar

The Novgorod veche had comprehensive competence. It passed laws, invited the prince and concluded an agreement with him, and if dissatisfied with him, expelled him; the veche elected, replaced and judged the mayor and the thousand and sorted out their disputes with the prince; it chose the candidate for the post of archbishop, and was the highest court of justice for political and other major crimes. The Veche decided all issues of foreign policy: it issued decrees on the construction of fortresses, on the gathering of troops, declared war and made peace, and also signed trade agreements with foreign countries.

The veche had its own office. The verdicts of the veche were sealed with the seals of Veliky Novgorod. At the meeting there could be neither a proper discussion of the issue nor a proper vote. The decision was made by eye, based more on the strength of the shouts than on the majority of votes, noted V.O. Klyuchevsky. In case of disagreement at the meeting, noisy disputes and sometimes fights arose: the winning side was recognized by the majority.

In an effort to strengthen the independence of Novgorod from Kyiv, the Novgorod nobility achieved the election of its archbishop in 1156, who soon became one of the first dignitaries of the republic. Since the 13th century, a unique procedure for electing a ruler has been established in Novgorod: the veche elected three candidates, then three notes with their names were placed on the throne in the St. Sophia Cathedral, and the lot decided who should be archbishop. The chosen one went to Kyiv for consecration to the rank of archbishop.

The archbishop was not only the head of the Novgorod church, but had enormous influence and authority in the political and social life of Novgorod. He managed the richest treasury and exercised control over the standards of weights and measures. The archbishop usually presided over the council of gentlemen. Together with the mayor and the thousand, he sealed all important government acts and international treaties with his seal.

Veliky Novgorod had to wage a long and stubborn struggle for its independence, primarily with neighboring princes who sought to subjugate the “free” and rich city. The most difficult and exhausting for Novgorod was the struggle with the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, who used the cessation of the supply of grain from North-Eastern Rus' as an important weapon of political pressure on Novgorod.

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