The fall of the Inca Empire, a civilization that inherited the achievements of the more ancient peoples of South America.
The fall of the Inca Empire, a civilization that inherited the achievements of the more ancient peoples of South America.
National motto: Ama llulla, ama suwa, ama qilla (Don't lie, don't steal, don't be lazy) Inca Empire, Tawantinsuyu (Tawantin Suyu, Tawantinsuyu)
Chronology
Even before the Incas achieved their power, several other cultures flourished in the vast Andean region. The first hunters and fishermen appeared here at least 12,000 years ago, and by 3000 BC. e. fishing villages dotted this entire waterless coastline. Small rural communities arose in the fertile valleys at the foot of the Andes and green oases in the desert.
Millennia later, larger social groups of people penetrated into the interior of the territory. After overcoming the high mountain peaks, they began to settle on the eastern slopes of the range, using the same irrigation techniques they had developed on the coast to irrigate their fields and harvest their crops. Settlements sprang up around temple complexes, and artisans produced increasingly complex pottery and textiles.
Archaeologists classify the products of Andean artisans according to the time and geographical period of their distribution. For this purpose, the term “horizons” is used to identify the main stages of stylistic uniformity, broken by certain features, from the point of view of aesthetics and technology.
Early colonial period: 1532 - 1572 AD
Early horizon: 1400 - 400 BC.
Named after the temple center at Chavin de Huantar, located in a small northern valley on the eastern slopes of the Andes, the Chavin style, strongly associated with a powerful emerging new religion, arose around 1400 BC. e. and reached its peak of development and influence by 400 BC. e.
This religion, which is believed to be based on the leading role of an oracle, supposedly able to foresee the future, overcome diseases and make requests to the gods, gradually spread to the south. By 1000 B.C. it reached the area of modern Lima, and by 500 BC. - Ayacucho, located two hundred miles inland. From Chavín de Huantar, priests apparently went to other communities to achieve there the worship of such deities as this god with a rod, so named because he holds a scepter (a symbol of power) in his hands.
The Chavin people achieved significant technological progress and even made several discoveries that were cutting-edge for those times. The Chavins invented the loom and experimented with various metallurgical techniques, such as welding, soldering, and making gold-silver alloys. Among the products they produced are large metal sculptures, as well as yarn-dyed fabrics depicting such images of the Chavin cult as a god with a grinning jaguar and other animals living in the Amazon Valley.
Early Intermediate Period: 400 BC - 550 AD
Various indigenous styles began to emerge along the southern coast of Peru. Two of the most characteristic features of the so-called Paracas culture, named after the Paracas Peninsula, were beautiful textiles and bottle-shaped tombs - each room of such a crypt could accommodate up to 40 bodies.
Another people - the Nazca - cultivated plots of land in the valleys located 200 miles south of the modern capital of Peru, Lima. By 370 B.C. The Nazca style dominated the southwest coast, leaving its most visible mark on pottery. The Nazcas are famous for their mysterious, puzzling Nazca Lines, enormous land patterns. To do this, they removed all the stones and gravel in a certain area, exposing soils that were more faded in color, after which they scattered the collected stones and gravel in heaps along its edges. Such “lines” probably had some meaning for the religion of the Nazca people.
On the northern coast of Peru around 100 BC. A militant Moche culture arose. She extended her control over an area of up to 150 miles along the coast. The Moche Indians developed an entire metallurgical complex, created monumental buildings from sun-dried raw brick (adoba), and they developed their own original style, which was most reflected in vessels with realistic portraits.
Middle horizon: 550 - 900 years AD
The chulpas burial towers, still preserved in their original form, rise on one of the mountain slopes near Lake Titicaca. The practice of burials on the territory of the empire varied greatly from one region to another, differing also on social grounds. These tombs, belonging to local nobility, are built on mortarless stone slabs of the highest quality. they were built in the middle of the second millennium AD. and suffered greatly from earthquakes.
The era of big cities has arrived. On the shores of Lake Titicaca at an altitude of 12,500 feet, pyramids and rock mounds appeared, decorated with beautiful stone carvings, as seen in the image of the god (right), believed to be a new interpretation of the old Chavín god with a staff. The people who built all these structures settled in this region around 100 BC. and began to build around 100 AD. city of Tiahuanaco.
By 500 AD e. The Tiahuanacans already dominated the territory of the Southern Andes, and after five hundred years they disappeared completely. During their hegemony, they created distant colonies, claimed the lands adjacent to the shores of Lake Titicaca as their own, and sent trading caravans of llamas along the entire coast.
Meanwhile, the small village of Wari, located 600 miles to the north, was gradually developing into a city. During its heyday, it was home to between 35,000 and 70,000 residents, with water supplied to their homes through an underground plumbing system.
Weaving was one of the most common occupations. The Wari people disappeared around 900 AD, but they left behind an important legacy - the concept of a centralized state and recommendations for its creation.
Late Intermediate (Coastal): 900 - 1476 AD
The collapse of empires one after another marked the onset of a period of internecine wars, during which small nations, spurred on by the examples of the Wari people, tried to create their own metropolises.
Launching an offensive from the center of what had once belonged to the Moche lands on the northern coast of Peru, the Chimu tribe gradually united more than 600 miles of coastline in their new state. From the well-supplied irrigation system of the hot desert capital of Chan Chan, with a population of 36,000, the Chimu lords ruled a strictly classed society in which skilled craftsmen were held in special esteem.
The Chimu Empire grew stronger thanks to the complex irrigation system they created, as well as the conquest of neighboring cultures such as Chancay, Ika-Chinka and Sikan. The Sikan culture can be judged by the knife used for ritual ceremonies. When their culture reached its peak, the Chimu knew how to decorate clothes and household utensils with gold patterns that required complex processing, and created fabrics of amazing beauty.
And so they had to enter into a power struggle with their rivals, the Incas.
Late Intermediate Period (mountainous regions): 900 - 1476 AD
‘Huaca’ – sacred sites of the Incas.
"Quenco" is one of the largest "huaca" in the Cusco area. A semicircular wall of smooth large stones laid in a row only emphasizes the natural monolithic limestone rock, this is the main center for religious worship in “Kenko”. In the cave adjacent to the wall there is an altar carved into the rock.
Descendants of a people who settled in the Cusco Valley, located at an altitude of over 11,000 feet above sea level, the Incas did not begin to develop their culture until after 1200 AD, as evidenced by the jar (right). Although the capital city of Cusco grew steadily, their power remained fairly limited. Then in 1438 Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui seized the throne. Calling himself “Earth Shaker,” he and his troops made a campaign throughout the Andes, conquering some states, negotiating with others, trying to unite several neighboring countries into a single powerful empire. Pachacuti rebuilt Cusco, turning the capital into a city with beautiful stone palaces and temples. Its provinces were governed by a large, disciplined, well-functioning bureaucracy that defended the interests of the state. His successor, the son of Topa Inca, who came to power in 1471, dealt such a crushing blow to the Chima that he secured complete control over the entire vast region, stretching from Ecuador to the heart of Chile.
Late Horizon: 1476 - 1532 AD
Having strengthened their power, the Incas achieved an unprecedented rise in culture. Armies marched along the extensive road network and trade took place. The art of gold forging, ceramics and weaving has reached incredible beauty and perfection. Stone processors created massive buildings from huge stone blocks precisely and tightly fitted to each other. The Incan nobility, depicted in the figurine on the right, ruled the Andes until the death of Emperor Huayn Capac, who died of smallpox between 1525 and 1527. His successor soon died, leaving the question of succession to the throne open, which led to the outbreak of a civil war. It ended in 1532, when one of Huayna Capac's two rival sons, Atahualpa, emerged victorious and Huascar imprisoned.
By this time, a Spaniard named Francisco Pizarro had made his exploratory tour along the coast of the Inca Empire. Having only two hundred fighters at his disposal, he took advantage of civil strife, a smallpox epidemic and attacked the Inca troops, captured Atahualpa himself and executed him.
Early colonial period: 1532 - 1572 AD
Pizarro and his band of adventurers approached Cuzco in 1533 and were simply amazed by the unprecedented beauty of this city. The Spaniards placed Atahualpa's half-brother Manco Inca on the throne to rule the Incan Empire through him.
However, Manco Inca did not become a puppet in the hands of the conquerors and soon led a popular revolt. He was eventually forced to flee Cuzco, where Pizarro himself now ruled until he was assassinated in 1541 by supporters of his main rival. A year later, the viceroy arrived in Lima to govern the Andean territories as Spanish provinces.
In 1545, the Spaniards captured Manco Inca, who was still emperor for several thousand Incas, who took refuge with him in the dense jungle, where they built the city of Vilcabamba. Manco Inca was killed. His son Tupac Amaru, the last Inca emperor, tried to resist the Spanish, but it was broken when the Spanish captured his main base at Vilcabamba in 1572.
Fall of the Inca Empire.
Conquistadors were always attracted by the sound of gold. William H. Powell, photograph by the Architect of the Capitol.
Francisco Pissarro arrived in America in 1502 in search of fortune. He served for seven years in the Caribbean, participating in military campaigns against the Indians.
In 1524, Pissaro, together with Diego de Almagro and the priest Hernando de Luque, organized an expedition through the undiscovered territories of South America. But its participants fail to find anything interesting.
In 1526, a second expedition took place, during which Pissaro exchanged gold from local residents. During this expedition, three Incas were captured by the Spaniards in order to make them translators. This expedition turned out to be very difficult; they suffered from illness and hunger.
In 1527, Pissaro arrived in the Inca city of Tumbes. From the locals he learns about the large amounts of gold and silver decorating the gardens and temples in the depths of their lands. Realizing that military forces are needed to obtain these riches, Pissarro travels to Spain and turns to Charles V for help. He talks about the countless treasures of the Incas, which can be quite easily obtained. Charles V gives Pissaro the title of governor and captain of governor in all the lands that he can conquer and control.
Even before the Spanish conquest began, the Incas suffered from the arrival of Europeans on their continent. Black smallpox wiped out entire families of natives who had no immunity to it.
Around this time, Huayna Capaca (Sapa Inca) dies. The highest government position should go to one of the sons from the main wife. The son who, in the opinion of the monarch, could cope better with his responsibilities was chosen. In Cusco, the capital of the Incas, the nobility proclaims the new Sapa Inca - Huascara, which means "sweet hummingbird."
The problem was that the previous Sapa Inca spent the last years of his life in Quito. As a result, most of the court lived in Quito. The city became a second capital, dividing the tribal leaders into two rival factions. The army stationed in Quito gave preference to Huayna Capac's other son, Atahualpa, which means "wild turkey." He spent most of his life next to his father on the battlefields. He was a man of keen intelligence. Later, the Spaniards were surprised at the speed with which he mastered the game of chess. At the same time, he was merciless, evidence of which could be the fear of the courtiers to incur his wrath.
Atahualpa showed loyalty to the new Sapa Inca. But he refused to come to his brother’s court, perhaps fearing that Huascar saw him as a dangerous rival. Eventually, Sapa Inca demanded his brother's presence at his side at court. Refusing the invitation, Atahualpa sent ambassadors with expensive gifts in his place. Huascar, perhaps influenced by courtiers hostile to his brother, tortured his brother's men. Having killed them, he sent his army to Quito, ordering Atahualpa to be taken by force to Cuzco. Atahualpa called his loyal warriors to arms.
At first, the Cuzco army even managed to capture the rebellious brother. But he managed to escape and join his own. In battle, Atahualpa defeated those who captured him. Huascar urgently gathers a second army and sends it to his brother. The poorly trained recruits were no match for Atahualpa's veterans, and were defeated in a two-day battle.
As a result, Atahualpa captures Huascar and triumphantly enters Cuzco, after which a brutal massacre was carried out against the wives, friends and advisers of the unlucky brother.
In 1532, Pissaro and Almagro returned to Tumbes along with 160 well-armed adventurers. In place of the once flourishing city, they found only ruins. It suffered greatly from the epidemic, and then from the civil war. For five months, Pissaro moved along the coast, plundering imperial warehouses along the way.
As a result, Pissaro goes to the court of Atahualpa. Nine of his men, frightened by the prospect of being stranded in mountainous Inca territory, turned back.
The Spaniards were surprised by the Inca roads, paved with stone slabs, with trees planted along the edges creating shade, as well as canals lined with stone.
Having learned about the movement of white people within his country, Atahualpa invites them to visit him. From the words of the ambassador, he understood that the Spaniards looked and were friendly. During the meeting with the ambassador, Pissarro made gifts to the monarch and spoke a lot about peace.
Pissaro placed his men in an open space in the main square of the city of Cajamarca. He sent Hernando de Soto to pay his respects to Atahualpa, so that he would try to seduce him with his offer to meet in person.
Atahualpa reproached the Spaniards for plundering his warehouses and for neglecting some of the Indians on the coast. To which the Spaniards began to praise their military art and offered to use their services. Atahualpa agrees to pay a visit to Pissaro in Cajamarca.
During this meeting, Hernando de Soto wanted to scare Atahualpa and almost ran over him on his horse, stopping in close proximity to him, so that drops of the horse’s saliva fell on the Inca’s clothes. But Atahualpa did not flinch. He later ordered the execution of those courtiers who showed fear.
Pissaro, following the example of Cortes, who conquered the powerful Aztec empire by kidnapping the emperor, began preparing his ambush.
At night, Atahualpa sent 5,000 warriors to block the road north of Cajamarca. According to the plan he developed, as he later admitted to the Spaniards, he wanted to capture Pissaro and all his warriors alive in order to sacrifice Inti to the Sun God, and leave their horses for breeding.
At dawn, Pissaro placed his men in the buildings around the square. The wait was agonizing for the Spaniards, since the tenfold numerical superiority of the Incas was frightening and overwhelming. Later, as one of the eyewitnesses admitted, “many Spaniards unconsciously urinated in their pants because of the horror that shackled them.”
Capture of Atahualpa
Duflos, Pierre, 1742-1816, engraver.
At sunset, the imperial procession approached the square. Atahualpa was carried by 80 servants on a wooden stretcher inlaid with gold and decorated on all sides with parrot feathers. The monarch, dressed in clothes with gold threads and all decorated, sat holding in his hands a golden shield with a heraldic image of the Sun. There were also dancers and musicians accompanying them. His retinue numbered more than 5,000 warriors (the main forces, about 80,000 warriors, were outside the city). They all came without weapons.
In the square they saw only one Dominican monk in a cassock with a cross in one hand and a Bible in the other hand. The Royal Council in Spain decided that pagans should be given the opportunity to convert to Christianity voluntarily, without bloodshed, and the conquistadors decided not to break the letter of the law. The monk explained the meaning of the Christian faith to the Inca ruler, and the translator explained to him that he was being asked to accept the religion of foreigners. “You say that your God accepted death,” Atahualpa responded to this, “but mine still lives,” he emphasized, pointing to the Sun creeping beyond the horizon.
Atahualpa took the prayer book handed to him. As far as he understood, the Spaniards valued this thing as much as the Huaca Indians, a talisman in which the spirit of the gods was found. But this object seemed like a toy to him compared to their huge stone “huaca”, which the Incas worshiped, so he threw it to the ground. According to eyewitnesses, after this the monk turned to Pissaro and told him and his men: “You can attack them after this. I forgive you all your sins in advance.”
Musician with a flute. This product demonstrates to us the high art of chimu in the field of metal processing using technical techniques. Such figurines were forged in parts, which were then soldered together. The musician holds his flute in his tattooed hands.
Pissaro gave the signal to attack. Two cannons fired into the crowd of Indians. Spanish horsemen rode out of the buildings in full armor and attacked the unarmed Inca warriors. They were followed by infantrymen with the sound of trumpets with the battle cry - “Santiago!” (the name of the saint who, according to the Spaniards, helps to defeat the enemy).
It was a brutal massacre of unarmed Indians. Pissaro had difficulty pulling Atahualpa out of her. Within a few hours, 6,000 Inca warriors died in and around Cajamarca, but not a single Spaniard was killed. Among the few wounded was Pissaro himself, who was wounded by his own soldier when he tried to break through to the royal enemy in order to capture him alive.
Many researchers tried to understand why Atahualpa made such a fatal mistake by approaching the Spaniards with unarmed warriors. Perhaps the leader did not even consider this scenario, when such a small detachment would try to attack his huge army. Or he believed in the Spaniards' speeches about peace.
In captivity, Atahualpa was allowed to retain all royal privileges. All his wives and servants were near him. The nobles came to him and carried out his orders. In less than a month, he learned to speak Spanish and even write a little.
Realizing that white people were attracted to gold, he decided to pay off, offering to fill the rooms he was in with gold for his freedom, and also “stuff the Indian hut with silver twice.” Instead of releasing Atahualpa, he signed his death sentence with such a proposal. By ordering all the gold in Cuzco to be plucked and delivering it to the Spaniards, he only inflamed their passion for the precious metal. At the same time, fearing that his brother might offer even more gold for his freedom, he ordered his execution. The Incas did not perceive gold and silver as something valuable. To them it was just beautiful metal. They called gold “the sweat of the Sun,” and silver “the tears of the Moon.” Fabrics were valuable to them because they took a lot of time to make.
Knife for ritual ceremonies. Ritual Tumi knife with a gold handle and a silver blade and decorated with turquoise. God Naimlap is depicted with a semicircular headdress and a pair of wings.
The Spaniards began to suspect that Atahualpa was plotting against them. This created panicky fear in their ranks. For a long time, Pissarro opposed the attitude of his compatriots. But in the end, panic broke his decisive spirit.
Atahualpa began to realize the inevitability of his death. His religion guaranteed him eternal life if the ritual was performed correctly.
At a meeting of the council, headed by Pissaro himself, it was decided to burn Atahualpa. When the Spaniards informed the leader of their decision, he burst into tears. Destruction of the body meant deprivation of immortality.
Before his death, the monk once again tried to convert the pagan to the Christian faith. Realizing that if he converted to Christianity, he would not be burned, but strangled with a garrote (a hoop with a screw to slowly strangle the victim), he agreed to undergo the initiation rite, assuming that the body would be handed over to the people for mummification. But the Spaniards deceived him here too. After the leader was strangled, they burned his clothes and part of his body at the stake. They buried the rest.
Pissaro understood the benefits that a local ruler under Spanish control would offer him. He chose Huayna Capac's son, Manco Inca. When the Spaniards arrived in Cusco, they were greeted as well-wishers who had restored the legitimate ruling branch of the Incas, although all the mummies were safely hidden before their appearance.
The conquistadors were not distinguished by their generosity and humiliated Manco in every possible way, showing a disregard for the customs of the Incas. The worst happened when Pissaro went to the ocean coast to found the new capital of Lima. He left his brothers Gonzalo and Juan in charge. Gonzalo treated Manco with undisguised contempt. Having kidnapped his beloved wife, he abused her.
The atrocities committed by the Spaniards led to Manco flatly refusing to cooperate and attempting to leave Cusco. The Spaniards returned him to the capital in chains. In conclusion, they were subjected to various kinds of humiliation.
As a result, Manco persuades one of Francisco's brothers, Hernando, who had recently arrived in Cusco from Spain, to release him temporarily from prison so that he could pray in the sanctuary, for which he promised to give him a golden statue depicting his father. As soon as Manco got out of Cuzco, he called his people to revolt. The matter ended with the siege of Cuzco, which lasted almost a whole year. During this siege, there were traitors among the Indians, both in Cuzco and beyond, who secretly carried food to the invaders. Among them were even relatives of Manco himself, who feared reprisals for their previous support of the Europeans from the new ruler. The hopelessness of the siege became clear when reinforcements arrived from Spain. Some of Manco's supporters even broke away from him, realizing that the good moment had been missed.
After the failure of the siege of Cuzco, Manco took 20,000 of his compatriots with him into the dense jungle. There they built a new city, Vilcabamba, in a short time. It covered an area of about two square miles and contained about three hundred houses and sixty monumental structures. There were convenient roads and canals.
From this city the Incas sometimes launched raids against the conquerors, attacking outposts. In 1572, the Spaniards decided to put an end to this last stronghold, as evidence of the former power of the natives. Having reached Vilcabamba, they found only deserted ruins on the site of the city. The defenders burned it down before leaving the city. The Spaniards continued the chase, penetrating further and further into the jungle. As a result, they captured the last Inca leader Tupac Amaru. He was brought to Cusco and beheaded in the city square. This is how the dynasty of Inca rulers ended.
The result of the fifty-year stay of the Spaniards was a reduction in the indigenous population by three-quarters. Many died from diseases brought from the Old World, and many from hard labor.
Huge amounts of gold and silver were exported to Spain. Objects of art were usually melted down before export. The most beautiful products were delivered to the court of Charles V, then they were exhibited for public viewing in Seville. When Charles began to lack funds for his military campaigns, these outstanding works of Inca art were ordered to be melted down.
Literature:
A. Varkin, L. Zdanovich, “Secrets of disappeared civilizations”, M. 2000.
Incas: lords of gold and heirs of glory, translation from English by L. Kanevsky, M., Terra, 1997.
Origin and history of the Inca tribe
During the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1483), small tribes—predecessors of the Incas—lived in the Cuzco region. The Incas were just one of many local population groups. Although information about the chronology and development of the Cusco region is incomplete, some of the major stages of Peruvian archeology can be recognized in the styles of local pottery. Evidence of Huari influence has been found in the very south of the valley, at Piquillact, approximately 30 kilometers south of Cusco. However, there are no traces of Huari architecture or pottery in the area of Cusco itself. It is assumed that in the middle horizon it was not constantly inhabited. The main style of pottery common in the period preceding the Inca Empire is generally called sprat, and varieties of this style are found everywhere between San Pedro de Cacha and Machu Picchu. The local origin of the Incas is demonstrated by the fact that the sprat style is akin to the characteristic style of the Incas during their imperial period.
Partially preserved structures have been found on the hills - settlements of the Late Intermediate Period, in which some attempt to adhere to a general plan can be seen. This period is characterized by round and square buildings, not very similar to the houses of Piquillacta. The Spanish conquerors heard from the Incas that before they became dominant, the peoples of the sierra (mountains) were very diverse and disorganized and settled in inaccessible places because they were constantly at war with each other.
Written accounts of the early period of Inca rule - approximately between 1200 and 1438. – represent very unreliable historical evidence. This period covers the time from the founding of the Inca dynasty until 1438, when the Inca Empire was already the most significant state in the Andes.
Origin myths say that the Incas originally consisted of three original clan groups united under the leadership of Manco Capac, the legendary founder of the dynasty. These myths tell how the Incas searched for fertile land and found it in the Cusco Valley and how they settled on this land.
Upon arrival in Cuzco, the Incas encountered resistance and were forced to settle nearby until they retook the site where they later built the famous Temple of the Sun, Qoricancha. The power of Manco Capac extended only to the indigenous natives of the area of \u200b\u200bCuzco. The second and third Inca leaders after him, Sinchi Roca and Lloque Yupanqui, had a reputation for peace, while the fourth, Maita Capac, aroused hostility towards himself, and as a result, an uprising arose among the inhabitants of Cuzco itself.
The fifth, sixth and seventh Inca chiefs captured small territories in the surrounding areas. During this early period, neither the Incas nor their neighbors carried out organized conquests, but periodically raided neighboring villages when there was a danger that their inhabitants would begin to assert their rights, or when they seemed to have something to plunder.
Inca Viracocha, eighth ruler of the Inca dynasty, was the first to assume the title Sapa Inca(The One, or Supreme Inca). He put an end to local conquests, forming a relatively small but powerful state. At the end of his reign, a situation was created that was critical for the Incas, since the Cuzco region was threatened from three sides. In the south, the tribes were strong opponents stakes And lupaka, but they were at enmity with each other, and the Incas could focus their attention on the west and northwest, where the tribes lived Quechua And chunka. The Incas were on friendly terms with the Quechua, a powerful people who acted as a buffer between the Incas and the formidable Chanca tribe. It became increasingly stronger and had already captured the province of Andahuaillas, which had previously been occupied by the Quechuas, settling on its territory. Anticipating an inevitable clash in the future with the powerful Chancas, Inca Viracocha strengthened the position of his people by marrying the daughter of the tribal leader anta, closest neighbors in the northwest, and entering into an alliance with the Quechua.
When the Chancas reached the Incas, Viracocha was already an old man, and the people had a strong belief in the invincibility of the Chancas. Viracocha and his heir, Inca Urcon, apparently simply fled from Cuzco along with their retinue. However, the situation was saved by another group of Inca nobles and warlords, led by Yupanqui, another son of Inca Viracocha, who gathered as many warriors as he could under his banner and successfully defended Cuzco. The Chanca were then defeated in a series of battles, and it turned out that the Incas had won the power struggle and began to reign supreme in the mountains. After these events, Viracocha found himself out of work, and Yupanqui was proclaimed Pachacuti. He retained power and was crowned ruler of the Incas.
The Late Incan or Imperial period began with the reign of the Inca Pachacuti Yupanqui in 1438 and ended with the Spanish conquest in 1532. The history of the Incas of this period is much more reliable than the previous one. There is quite reliable information about the reign of the Inca rulers and about the military expansion of the empire, which spread throughout the entire territory of the Andes (see Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Territory of the Inca Empire, showing areas annexed as a result of the wars of the late Inca period (according to J. Rove)
Inca Pachacuti consolidated previous conquests and new alliances by allocating lands near Cuzco to new subjects and giving them the opportunity to participate in the newly created administrative structure of Cuzco with the right to call themselves Incas. He then set about devising reforms that would integrate the new provinces into the growing state.
The Inca ruler began a military campaign to annex the tribe's lands urubamba, located to the west of the Quechua and Chanca territories, and southern lands up to Lake Titicaca. Having achieved military success, but realizing the urgent need to create a new effective system of government, Inca Pachacuti considered it beneficial to remain permanently in the capital, transferring command of the troops to his brother Capac Yupanqui, who was ordered to move north and conquer territories within clearly defined and limited limits - apparently up to Huanuco himself. Complications arose after a successful campaign when the Chanca Indians whom Inca Pachacuti had accepted into his army deserted near Huanuco. Pursuing the Chanca, Capac Yupanqui crossed strictly defined boundaries, lost fugitives, and then—probably hoping to regain the favor of the Inca Pachacuti—attacked and captured Cajamarca, the most powerful possession in the northern mountains. Leaving a small garrison there, Capac Yupanqui returned to Cuzco and was executed here - for exceeding his authority and for allowing the Chanca to leave.
The cruel punishment that befell Capac Yupanqui will become clearer if you look at the situation from the point of view of the Inca Pachacuti. Cajamarca was an important province and allied with the coastal state of Chimu, growing, powerful and extremely well organized - it represented the only obstacle to the Incan expansion to the north. At that time, Pachacuti was not ready to fight the entire Chimu army and therefore feared their possible attack on the small garrison left in the prematurely captured Cajamarca. In addition, Capac Yupanqui, due to his obvious success, could arouse the jealousy of Inca Pachacuti.
Inca Pachacuti had to first go out on a personal campaign to suppress the uprising in the south, in the Lake Titicaca basin, before he could again turn his attention to the north. By his will, Inca Topa, his son and heir, led the army and led it on a campaign across the highlands as far as Quito. Then, having reached the coast of what is now Ecuador, Inca Topa turned his army south, approaching the Chimu country from where they least expected him. He successfully conquered the entire northern and central coast as far as the Lurin Valley. Soon after this great campaign, the Inca Topa undertook another to subjugate the valleys of the southern coast from Nazca to Mala. While Inca Topa expanded his empire, Inca Pachacuti remained in Cuzco, establishing the administrative structure and rebuilding Cuzco into a capital befitting the imperial scale.
Inca Topa became ruler around 1471. He had just begun his campaign in the eastern forests when stakes And lupaka raised an uprising in the south - a serious threat that had to be dealt with as quickly as possible. After successfully suppressing the rebellion, the Inca occupied the territory of Bolivia and Chile, penetrating as far south as the Maule River, which from then on remained the southern border of the empire.
After the completion of the eastern expedition, Inca Topa, like his father, settled thoroughly in Cuzco, becoming closely involved in the formation of an empire, rebuilding and making more flexible administrative policies to suit the many new tribes and provinces now united under one rule. Perhaps it was this Inca who expanded the Inca conceptual system at the expense of some Chimu ideas, since it was he who convinced many noble people and Chimu artisans to move to Cuzco.
Inca Topa died in 1493 and was succeeded by his son Huayna Capac. This Inca suppressed several uprisings and annexed new lands to the empire. chachapoyas And myobamba, as well as the area north of Quito, where he established border markers along the Ancamayo River (today's border between Ecuador and Colombia). His achievement also included the full integration of the territory of Ecuador into the empire and the construction of new cities like Tomebamba, where he himself lived for a long time. Before his death in this city - he died suddenly from the plague - Huayna Capac learned that some strange bearded people had been seen on the coast (this was Pizarro's first expedition).
During the five years that remained of the Inca Empire, Huayna Capac's two sons, Atahualpa and Huascar, fought a civil war for power. Atahualpa won the war and was just preparing for his official coronation when the Spanish reappeared in 1532 (see Chapter 10).
From the book Eucharist by Kern CyprianSECTION ONE Origin and history of the Liturgy.
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There are very few sources of information regarding the history of the Incas, an ancient Indian civilization. Most of the information comes from Spanish conquistadors and missionaries. Filippo Huaman Poma De Ayaalo, an Inca artist of the 16th century, left one original and priceless document - these are drawings and chronicles that give a detailed description of Inca society. Realizing that his world could disappear, Huaman Poma described all its splendor. This was his life's work. He intended to give it to King Philip II, in the hope that the monarch would see his colony in a different light and change his attitude towards it.
In his work, he also described the way of life of the Andean peoples before the arrival of the Incas - the Indians led a harsh and difficult lifestyle, they were practically savages. But everything changed with the appearance of a creature who was half-man, half-god - the son of Inti, the son of God. His name is Manco Capac. He called himself “Inca” and brought civilization to his world.
He taught people to build cities and cultivate the land. Under his leadership, the Inca world began to flourish. His wife Manco Capacá Ocllo taught the women how to weave.
This was the world of the Incas, where one name belonged to both the ruler and his people.
100 years after the formation of the Inca Empire, in the 15th century, this state, located on the territory of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, ceased to exist. However, more on this a little later... The article will talk about who the Incas were.
The Birth of Civilization
According to legend, the sun god Inti created the ancestors of the Inca rulers. These were 4 brothers and 4 sisters who came out of the Tampa Tokko cave. Their leader was Aiyar Manko, who carried a golden staff in his hands. He had to find a place where the staff would enter the ground, which would be a sign of fertile soil.
After long wanderings, Aiyar Manco and his brothers and sisters came to the valley of Cuzco, where the staff finally entered the ground.
After defeating the warlike locals, the brothers and sisters founded the capital of the Inca Empire. Ayar Manco began to call himself Manco Capac, which means “ruler of the Incas.” He became the first Sappa Inka (paramount chief).
Was everything exactly like that?
Ethnologists at the National Center for Scientific Research are not entirely sure of the historical existence of the first eight Incas. Rather, they were mythical characters. Due to the fact that all currently available information about the Incas is closely related to their epic.
Each family of Inca rulers had its own traditions, similar to African ones. Each generation of rulers told history in their own way.
A significant period in the history of the Incas is associated with the ruler Pachacuti. Among other things, he was the greatest religious reformer. During his reign, the Inca people became much less dependent on the high priests of the solar religion.
Pachacuti time
In the 12th century, the Andes were inhabited by a huge number of different peoples and tribes constantly warring with each other. Pachacuti wanted to create an empire that would unite all the Andean peoples. His name, which means “world changer,” perfectly describes his aspirations.
He united the tribes around the city of Cusco and his goals became a reality.
At the beginning of the 15th century, the Inca Empire was subjected to an armed attack by the Chanca tribe. The city of Cusco is under threat. Pachacuti took command of the army and managed to repel the attack and, inspired by the victory, began military expansion.
Pachacuti captured territory in the area of Lake Titicaca and expanded the possessions of the Inca Empire of Tahuantinsuyu in the North up to the Cojamarca region.
A few words about the way of life
Briefly, the culture of the Incas reflects their life. When the Incas enslaved peoples, they presented local rulers with special gifts - women and various wonders. Thus, they made him somewhat grateful, left him in debt. In exchange for these gifts, the leaders had to pay tribute to the Incas or perform various types of work for them. From that moment on, they entered into a relationship that is historically called vassalage. This could be forced labor, called "mita", or unequal exchange, called "aine".
This system of relationships with the captured tribes became one of the main aspects of the power of the Incas.
Creating an orderly system on such a large scale in one of the largest mountain ranges on the planet was no easy task. The Incas needed to create collective labor, trade, a management system and ensure security. All this would have been impossible without the construction of roads.
There is no doubt that the Incas already knew what a wheel was. However, mountainous landscapes were not suitable for the use of wheeled vehicles. Even today, most travel in the Andes is done on foot. But the Incas conquered the mountain peaks, creating a developed network of communication routes. They built bridges in a world that literally hung between heaven and earth.
A few words about the reign of Sappa Inca
The power of the Incas, like any other power, required influence on the consciousness of people. And the majestic city of Machu Picchu, according to ethnologists, is only part of the image of power. For example, the ruler could not be looked at in the face. His image has always been associated with sacred rituals. He was revered as the son of the Sun and was a real shrine for the people.
The power of the ruler was perpetuated after his death, when he joined all the gods and himself became a God. The Huamana Poma Chronicles describe the Incas' understanding of life after death. They believed that human life force does not disappear after death. In their minds, the ancestors could protect those living on earth.
Capital of the Empire
In the heart of the Andes, at an altitude of more than 3 thousand meters, was the city of Cusco - the capital of the Inca Empire. In 1534 it was practically wiped off the face of the earth by Spanish invaders. The city of Cusco is the political and spiritual center of the Inca Empire.
In addition to Cusco, there were several administrative centers; there were not many cities in the Inca Empire. Most of the territory is small villages where the Incas lived and worked on plantations. Agriculture was the centerpiece of their economy.
Rituals
To understand who the Incas were, it is worth turning to their epic.
In the chronicles of Mana Poma, one of the chapters is devoted to a rather strange ritual - capacocha. During certain events, such as solar eclipses, volcanic eruptions, or epidemics, children were sacrificed to earn the favor of the spirits. It also happened that these were the children of tribal leaders.
The capacocha was an important part of the political and religious cult in Cusco.
Counting system
Although the Incas did not have a written language, they used a system of knots and cords called a quipu to record numbers and possibly other information. Thanks to the decimal system, taxation of subjects was orderly and efficient.
Taxes in the form of food were collected throughout the empire and collected in kolpos. This system provided the population with acceptable living conditions and was an important aspect in controlling the economy of the empire.
They lived at high altitudes, where every 5-6 years there might not be a harvest, so they simply needed to stock up.
In return, the empire provided security, maintained infrastructure, and provided residents with a means of subsistence. For this purpose, large warehouses with essential goods were built everywhere. Such kolpos existed in every region.
Now let's get back to the division of land
Pochacuti's son, Tupac Inca, continued to conquer new territories and became ruler in 1471. By the end of his reign, the empire extended throughout Western South America. He showed the inhabitants of neighboring tribes who the Incas were.
In 1493, the ruler was replaced by his son Huayna Capac. The wars of the new ruler on distant frontiers increased the level of discontent in the empire.
In 1502, having won the civil war, Atahualpa's army faced invaders from Europe. And although the Incas outnumbered the Europeans, Francisco Pizarro, with a small contingent of conquistadors, completely defeated their huge army. With the help of guns and horses, which the Incas had never seen before, the Spaniards were victorious. Atahualpa was captured and killed a year later.
However, according to historians, this is not the only reason for the fall of the empire. At that time, it was in the process of fragmentation and war, which was the main reason for the collapse.
The great rise of the Inca Empire was almost as fleeting as its fall. And now, unfortunately, we can find out who the Incas were from the few sources that have survived to this day.
The Incas(Inca) - a tribe from the Cuzco Valley, whose powerful civilization existed in the “pre-Columbian” era on the South American continent. The Incas managed to create a powerful empire that changed its appearance and conquered many peoples.
The Incas themselves called their empire Tawantinsuyu(Four cardinal directions) because there were 4 roads leading out of Cusco in different directions.
The Indians called their ruler Inka, which means “lord”, “king”. Then “Inca” began to be called all representatives of the ruling class, and with the invasion of the conquerors - the entire Indian population of the Tawantinsuyu empire.
Creation of the Great Inca Empire
Thanks to archaeological finds, it is obvious that the Inca civilization arose in 1200-1300. At the end of the 11th century, due to the drought that had been raging in the Andes for more than 100 years, neighboring, stronger tribes lost their power in fights for water and food.
Inspired by success, the Inca rulers turned their gaze to the abundant land - a spacious plateau with. And Pachacutec-Inca-Yupanqui, one of the great rulers of the Incas, undertook a military campaign to the south in the 15th century.
The population of the lakeside states was about 400 thousand people. The mountain slopes are riddled with gold and silver veins, and fat herds of llamas and alpacas grazed in the flowering meadows. Llamas and alpacas are meat, wool and leather, that is, military rations and uniforms.
Pachacutec conquered the southern rulers one after another, expanding the boundaries of his possessions, which became one of the largest empires on the planet. The number of subjects of the empire reached about 10 million people.
Victories in the military field were only the first stage on the path to power; after the warriors, officials, builders and artisans got down to business.
Incas: Wise Rule
If an uprising broke out in some Inca province, the rulers undertook the resettlement of people: they resettled residents of remote villages to new cities located near the built roads. They were ordered to build warehouses along the roads for regular troops, which were filled by their subjects with the necessary provisions. The Inca rulers were brilliant organizers.
The Inca civilization reached an unprecedented peak. Stonemasons erected architectural masterpieces, engineers turned isolated roads into a single system connecting all parts of the empire. Irrigation canals were created, agricultural terraces were laid out on the mountain slopes, about 70 types of crops were grown there and significant reserves of provisions were stored in storage facilities. The governors were excellent at taking inventory: they were aware of the contents of each repository of the vast empire, keeping records using a kippah - an analogue of the Incas' computer code - bundles of multi-colored threads with special combinations of knots.
The Inca rulers were quite harsh, but fair: they allowed the conquered peoples to preserve their traditions. The main social unit was the family. Each group of 20 families had a leader who was subordinate to a superior, who already headed 50 families, and so on - until the Inca Ruler.
Social structure of civilization
The Inca Empire had such a social structure: everyone worked here, with the exception of the youngest and very old people. Each family had its own cultivated plot of land. People weaved, sewed clothes, shoes or sandals, made dishes and jewelry from gold and silver.
The inhabitants of the empire had no personal freedom; the rulers decided everything for them: what to eat, what clothes to wear and where to work. The Incas were remarkable farmers; they built grandiose aqueducts to irrigate fields with water from mountain rivers, growing many valuable crops.
Many buildings erected by the Incas still stand today. The Incas created many original bridges from willow twigs and vines twisted into thick ropes. The Incas were natural potters and weavers:
They wove the finest fabrics from cotton, such that the Spaniards considered them silk. The Incas also knew how to spin wool, making beautiful and warm woolen clothes.
Mummy - ruler of the Incas
In the middle of the 15th century, Huayna Capac, the new ruler of the Incas, ascended the throne. Then it seemed that the Inca dynasty was all-powerful. People could even change nature in incredible ways: during the construction of Huayna Capac's residence, workers leveled hills, drained swamps, and moved the riverbed (Spanish: Rio Urubamba) to the southern part of the valley to plant cotton, corn, chili peppers and peanuts, and In the center of the “new” territory, a palace - Quispiguanca - will be built from brick and stone.
Around 1527, Huayna Capac died of an unknown illness. Those close to him, mummifying the body, transported it to Cuzco, and members of the royal family visited the deceased, asking for advice and listening to the answers spoken by the oracle sitting next to him. Even after his death, Huayna Capac remained the owner of the Quispiguanca estate. The entire harvest from the fields was used to maintain the mummy of the ruler, his wives, descendants and servants in luxury.
The traditions of inheritance among the Incas were such that even after the death of the rulers, all the palaces remained their property. Therefore, each Inca, as soon as he ascended the throne, began the construction of a new city palace and country residence. Archaeologists have discovered the ruins of up to a dozen royal residences, built for at least six rulers.
Inca - Spanish Conquest
In 1532, a detachment of 200 foreign conquerors under the leadership landed on the coast of what is now Peru. They were wearing steel armor and armed with firearms. Along the way, those dissatisfied with the dominance of the Incas joined the army. The Incas stubbornly resisted the conquerors, but the empire was weakened by internecine war and the fact that a large number of Incas warriors died from smallpox and measles brought by the Spaniards.
The Spaniards reached the northern city of Cajamarca, executed the ruler, placing their puppet on the throne.
Cusco, the capital of the Incas, was conquered by the Spanish in 1536. The invaders appropriated palaces, flourishing country estates, women and girls from the royal family. When the last Inca ruler was beheaded in 1572, it marked the end of the Tahuantinsuyu Empire. The Inca culture was destroyed, the state was plundered. The extensive network of roads, temples and palaces gradually fell into disrepair.
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The Incas are an Indian tribe that inhabited South America before the arrival of Europeans. They created a powerful empire with its capital in the city of Cusco on the territory of the state of Peru. The Inca Empire was inhabited by about 12 million people, and the area extended across the lands of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Chile and Argentina.
The Incas managed to create a great civilization. They were well versed in mathematics, astronomy and architecture. This knowledge helped them build unusual structures and make new discoveries. The great achievement of the Inca culture, which has survived to our day, is the city of Machu Picchu, built high in the mountains. It contains various buildings and temples in which the Incas performed rituals. A water pipeline was connected to the city, providing residents with water. On special terraces, peasants grew various vegetables that were used for cooking.
The Incas had their own religion. It was based on various natural phenomena. The Incas worshiped different gods. The sun god Inti played a major role. He was considered the progenitor of life on Earth, since the sun is a source of light and heat. The Indians considered members of their nobility to be direct descendants of Inti. In the city of Machu Picchu they built a temple of the Sun, in which they observed the celestial body.
In addition, the Incas considered certain rocks sacred, which they called huaca. Ancient Indian legends said that when the world was created, celestial objects went underground and then emerged through rocks and caves.
The great empire ceased to exist in 1572 after a long war with the Spaniards that lasted many years. To this day, in memory of the Inca civilization, abandoned cities, ancient temples, ceramic vessels and much more have been preserved, reminiscent of the former greatness of the mighty Inca country.
