City-state - state consisting of one city and surrounding territory. Typically, historically, city-states were parts of a larger civilization: for example, the city-states of ancient Greece, ancient Rome, Phenicia, the Mayan and Aztec city-states of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, the city-states of Central Asia, and the Italian Renaissance.
IN ancient world city-states were very common. Some of them formed formal or informal alliances, often under the leadership of a single leader. City-states in Ancient Rome, for example, were united through submission by other states, some, such as in Ancient Greece, in the Peloponnese united voluntarily for joint defense.
1. Internal structure
In ancient Greece, city-states were designated by one word (Greek: πόλις ) - policy. That's what they called big cities and city-states. The city-state, or polis, had its own specific internal system, a variety of governments, organizations, etc. The characteristic features of such a state organization were common citizenship.
1.1. City-states of ancient times
In ancient history there were:
1.2. City-states of the Northern Black Sea region
1.3. City-states of the Middle Ages
In medium-sized city-states there were:
1.4. City-states of recent history
2. Modern city-states
2.1. Singapore
Singapore was part of Malaysia for only two years and was expelled from the country in 1965 due to fears that its population would negatively impact racial composition population of Malaysia. Despite this, Singapore quickly modernized and industrialized, thanks to which it is now considered one of the four tigers of Asia. Singapore is now a modern, dynamic city-state with a significant influence on the world economy.
2.2. Vatican
Until 1870, the city of Rome was in the possession of the popes as part of the state - the Papal States. When King Victor Immanuel II annexed the Papal States in 1870, Pope Pius IX refused to recognize the newly formed Kingdom of Italy. In the year, Pope Pius XI and King Victor Immanuel III entered into an agreement under which the Vatican was recognized as an independent state with the pope at its head. The city-state now has its own citizenship, diplomatic corps, flag and postal system. With a population of less than a thousand people, the Vatican is the most recognized sovereign state in the world by most countries.
2.3. Monaco
The Principality of Monaco is one of the smallest states in the world (area 1.95 sq. Km.). Located in southern Europe, on the coast Mediterranean Sea, near the border of France and Italy. It borders the French Alpes-Maritimes department. Monaco includes the districts-city of Monaco ( Old city), Monte Carlo, La Condamine (business center and port) and Fontvieille (industrial area).
2.4. San Marino
San Marino is not only the most city-state in the world, but also the oldest independent republic in Europe. San Marino was founded in 301 AD. AD on Mount Titano by Christian Marino, who founded a Christian community on the mountain. To date, the country has its own rules and its own, one-of-a-kind, bodies that control and manage the democratic life of the state.
City-statesCity-state – a small territory together with a governing city (usually the only one) and is usually independent state. Historically, city-states were often part of large cultural areas and diverse political alliances. The first cities of the state appeared in Ancient world. These were huge territories that were constantly at war with each other.These were the Ancient Greek city-states, Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Sparta, Free Cities of Germany, City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia, Phenicia and Maya, Hausa City-States, Italian city-states.
City policies of Ancient Greece
In the VIII–VI centuries. BC e. Polis (city-states) were formed in Greece. Depending on the results of the struggle between the demos (farmers and artisans) with the clan nobility government system in the policies it was either democratic (Athens, etc.) or aristocratic (Sparta, Crete, etc.). In economically developed city-states (Corinth, Athens, etc.), slavery became widespread; in Sparta, Argos, etc., vestiges of the tribal system persisted for a long time.
A polis in Ancient Greece was a community of citizens, a collective of farmers and herders who lived together and defended their land together. Gradually the policy changed, acquiring the features of a state. Its center became a walled city, with a trading area - an agora, a temple dedicated to the patron god of the city, various houses and the like. Farmers and shepherds settled around the city. All land, lands and natural resources suitable for agriculture were considered the property of the community. Only a citizen could be the owner of the land. All citizens were members of the militia who took up arms during a military threat. The People's Assembly owned all the power in the polis. Only citizens of the village had the right to participate in it. There were different types of policies in Ancient Greece. There were dozens of them. The poleis of Ancient Greece were powerful. Their names are Athens and Sparta. The richest city was Corinth. Each policy had its own government, army and treasury, and minted coins.
Athens
The territory of the Athenian polis occupied the entire Attica peninsula in Central Greece. Athens itself is located in the center of a fertile plain 5 km from the sea. The dominant position in the new state belonged to the clan nobility. The main government positions were occupied by aristocrats. The highest power belonged to the Areopagus, consisting of representatives of the clan nobility, and the archons - government officials (the head, the high priest, the commander-in-chief, six public judges). Gradually, the poor members of the community fell open and were forced to take loans from the rich. A debt stone was placed on the borrowers' land. When they could not repay the debt with interest, they lost the land. Those who rented land kept only a sixth of the harvest for themselves, and the rest was given to the owner of the land. The peasants became poor, became debtors, and subsequently turned into slaves.
Solon's reforms
In the 8th-7th century BC. e. merchants, owners of workshops and ships, wealthy peasants became rich. They sought to participate in the management of the policy, but were deprived of this right. It was they who launched and led the struggle of the demos against the aristocracy. In the midst of the turmoil, citizens turned to the Athenian politician Solon, who headed the polis in Ancient Greece - this led to the implementation of several reforms. First of all, he canceled the debts of the Athenians and banned debt slavery. The land plots were returned to the debtors. The Athenians, who were enslaved for debt, were freed. From now on, no Athenian could be a slave! Solon introduced the division of citizens into four categories - the richest, the wealthiest, the middle-income and the poor - depending on the size of their property and income. Citizens of different categories had different rights and performed different duties to the state. The transformations that Solon made in Athenian society reoriented Athens towards the development of democracy.
Tyranny in Athens
20 years have passed since the beginning of Solon's reign, and unrest began again in Athens. A relative of Solon, the commander Pisistratus, in 560 BC. e. seized power and began to rule in Athens individually, by force ensuring peace and harmony in the Athenian polis. Thus, tyranny was established in Athens. The lands of the aristocrats who left the country were distributed among the peasants. For them, the tyrant introduced a tax (a tenth of the harvest), which enriched the state treasury. Pisistratus tried to promote the development of agriculture, crafts, trade, and shipbuilding. He began a large construction project in Athens: temples, paths and water pipelines were erected on his orders. Famous artists and poets were invited to the city, the Iliad and Odyssey were written, which by that time were transmitted orally. Actually, it was during the reign of Pisistratus that Athens became the cultural center of Greece. Their naval power began from then on.
Completion of the formation of the Athenian polis
Tyranny fell soon after the death of Peisistratus (since his heirs ruled cruelly), and the legislator Cleisthenes was elected as the first archon. He divided the entire territory of the Athenian state into 10 districts, each of which consisted of three equal parts - coastal, rural and urban. Citizenship was now determined by belonging not to a clan, but to a specific district. Previously, the country's territories were divided along tribal lines. With this reform, Cleisthenes “mixed” the citizens and gave them all the same rights. Thus, the influence of the clan nobility in government was reduced. All citizens were now considered equal, regardless of property status: even the poor could hold any government position. Thus, in Athens, power was again in the hands of the people.
Sparta
Sparta was called a powerful polis in Ancient Greece. In the 9th century BC. e. on the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Laconia region, the Dorians founded several settlements. Subsequently, they finally conquered the local tribes. In the 7th century. BC e. The Dorians annexed the neighboring region of Messenia to their possessions. During the two Messenian wars, a state entity was formed, called Lacedaemon (Sparta).
State structure
The citizens of Sparta lived according to the laws that, according to legend, were introduced by the sage Lycurgus. The leading role in the administration of the Spartan state was played by the council of elders. The decision of the council of elders was approved by the people's assembly. Only citizen-soldiers who had reached 30 years of age took part in it. Lycurgus made sure that all citizens of Sparta had equal rights, so that among them there were neither poor nor rich. Spartan families received identical plots of land; they could not be sold or given away, since all land in Sparta was considered the property of the state. The Spartans were forbidden to engage in crafts and trade; their only occupation was military affairs. Weapons and handicrafts were made for them by the perieki. The Spartan's land plot was cultivated by helots. The Spartans could not sell, fire or kill a helot - the families of the helots, like the land, belonged to the state.
Life of the Spartans
The Spartans were brave, resilient warriors. They wore rough clothes and lived in identical one-story wooden houses. They had certain forms of hairstyles, beards and mustaches. During construction it was allowed to use an ax, and only when making doors - a saw. From the age of 16 until old age, a Spartan was obliged to serve in the army. At the age of 30, he was considered an adult and had the right to receive a plot of land and get married. This is how the states-policies of Ancient Greece lived and developed.
Hausa city states. The governance system of the Hausan city-states can be considered using the example of Kano, which he left detailed description German traveler Heinrich Barth in the 40s XIX century The supreme power in Kano was vested in the ruler, Sarki, which he shared with his eldest son. Sarki was a “landowner”, and also had the right to administer justice, collect taxes, and recruit soldiers.
A “council of ministers” was also formed in Kano. Among the notable officials, G. Barth named the slave manager and the military commander of the stable.
The jurisdiction of the village chief at the local level included the function of collecting taxes, performing judicial functions in the village and allocating housing for newcomers. The village chief was an authoritative person who was perceived as “the father and soul of the village.” He sorted out family problems and problems that arose between people, all important news was immediately reported to the village chief.
In the 21st century, there are also city-states. These are Singapore, the Vatican and Monaco. There are also cities that are called “partially autonomous”. These are Hong Kong, Gibraltar, Vanity, Macau and Melilla.
City-state of Singapore located on the islands inSouth-East Asia, separated from the southern endMalay Peninsula narrow Strait of Johor. Borders the SultanateJohorincluded inMalaysia, and with islands Riau as part of Indonesia.
The first mentions of Singapore are in Chinese chronicles of the 3rd century. The island was a stronghold of the Srivijaya Empire, centered on Sumatra, and bore the Javanese name Tumasik. Very little evidence has been preserved about him except for isolated archaeological finds.
In the 15th–16th centuries, Singapore was part of the Sultanate of Johor. On February 6, 1819, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, a representative of the British East India Company, entered into an agreement with the Sultan of Johor to establish a trade zone in Singapore, allowing the immigration of different ethnic groups.
In 1867, Singapore became a colony of the British Empire, the British gave Singapore great importance as an important stronghold on the way to China.
During World War II, Japan occupied Malaysia and won the Battle of Singapore, which the British lost despite significant superiority in manpower; on February 15, 1942, Singapore passed to Japan until its defeat in September 1945.
Since 1951, Singapore became a self-governing state within the British Empire, Lee Kuan Yew served as Prime Minister after the elections.
In 1963, as a result of a referendum, Singapore entered the Federation of Malaysia along with the state of the Federation of Malaya, and the former British colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak.
Historical division of the Federation of Malaysia, of which Singapore was a member from 1963–1965
On August 7, 1965, as a result of the conflict, Singapore seceded from Malaysia, and on August 9, 1965, declared independence. Singapore's exit turned out to be painless, since the leadership of the federation believed that its presence as part of Malaysia greatly upset the ethnic balance in favor of the Chinese population.
From 1959 to 1990, during the reign of Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore, deprived of resources, was able to solve many internal problems and made a leap from a third world country to a highly developed country with high level life.
Principality of Monaco- The second largest city-state. It was founded in 1215. Located in the southEurope on the shoresLigurian Sea; on land it borders withFrance, the area of this principality is just over two square kilometers. This dwarf state ranks second in the world in terms of population density. Monaco is world famous thanks to its location in Monte Carlo ( largest area states) casinos. Gambling businessconstitutes one of the main sources of income for the state budget of Monaco. Monte Carlo also hosts the world famous Formula 1 race.
It is interesting that in such a populous state there are only twenty percent of local residents - only 37,731 people, the remaining eighty are visitors, in addition, only guests of the country can play in the casino for money, and local residents are prohibited.
Vatican City State – dwarf state- enclave (the smallest officially recognized state in the world) within the territoryRome, associated With Italy. The Vatican is located onVatican Hill in the northwestern partRome, a few hundred meters fromTiber. The Vatican is surrounded on all sides by Italian territory; the total length of the state border is 3.2 kilometers.Status of the Vatican in international law – auxiliary sovereign territoryHoly See, residence of the highest spiritual leadershipRoman Catholic Church, has been in existence since 1929. The Vatican is the only state in the world that lives on donations. After all, the budget income of this country consists of only two points: donations from Catholics and tourism, which visit this city-state in huge quantities to explore its manyattractions. The population of the Vatican is only 842 people.
Unification of Rus'
In the second half of the 9th century. Novgorod prince Oleg united power over Kiev and Novgorod in his hands. The chronicle dates this event to 882. The formation of the early feudal Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) as a result of the emergence of antagonistic classes was a turning point in the history of the Eastern Slavs. The process of uniting the East Slavic lands as part of the Old Russian state was complex. In a number of lands, the Kyiv princes encountered serious resistance from local feudal and tribal princes and their “husbands.” This resistance was suppressed by force of arms.
During the reign of Oleg (late 9th - early 10th centuries), a constant tribute was already levied from Novgorod and from the lands of Northern Russia (Novgorod or Ilmen Slovenes), Western Russian (Krivichi) and Northeastern (where the Finnish Merya tribe lived, which soon dissolved in the mass of the Slavs). Oleg's squads went to the land of the Drevlyans, who lived on the right side of the Dnieper. Oleg “tortured” them (subordinated them to his power), forcing the local princes to pay tribute. From the Eastern Dnieper region, the squads of the Kyiv prince ousted the Khazars and occupied the Chernigov lands of the northerners and Radimichi. The Kiev prince Igor (beginning of the 10th century - 945), as a result of a stubborn struggle, subjugated the lands of the Ulichs and Tiverts. Thus, the border of Kievan Rus was advanced beyond the Dniester.
A long struggle continued with the population of the Drevlyansky land. Igor increased the amount of tribute collected from the Drevlyans. During one of Igor’s campaigns in the Drevlyan land, when he decided to collect a double tribute, the Drevlyans defeated the princely squad and killed Igor. During the reign of Olga (945–969), Igor’s wife, the land of the Drevlyans was finally subordinated to Kyiv, their capital Iskorosten was destroyed, local princes and nobles were exterminated, and an increased tribute was imposed on the Drevlyans.
The territorial growth and strengthening of Rus' continued under Svyatoslav Igorevich (969–972) and Vladimir Svyatoslavich. The Old Russian state included the lands of the Vyatichi (along the Oka). The power of Rus' extended to North Caucasus. The territory of the Old Russian state expanded in a western direction, including the Cherven cities (named after the city of Cherven) and Carpathian Rus'.
With the formation of the early feudal state, more favorable conditions were created for maintaining the security of the country and its economic growth. But the strengthening of this state was associated with the development of feudal property and the further enslavement of the previously free peasantry, as evidenced by a number of sources. The chronicles mention princely villages (10th century); in the treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, representatives of the feudal nobility appear - “princes” and “boyars”. All this suggests that a process of feudalization was underway.
In 988, the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir the Red Sun, his children, squad, thousands of residents of the capital of the Old Russian state - the city of Kyiv were baptized in the waters of the Dnieper by the Byzantine metropolitan and priests. This date, noted in the oldest Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years,” is considered the year of the adoption of Christianity by Russia.
The Baptism of Rus' is one of the most important cultural events in the history of Ancient Rus'.
Painting and architecture, which had reached a high level of development in Byzantium, as well as writing and written literature, spread.
The introduction of Christianity as a unified state ideology contributed to the unification of the territory and the strengthening of the Old Russian state. A centralized organization of clergy was created. The unity of religion with the religions of the ancient countries of Europe made the Old Russian state part of the world Christian society.
In the middle of the 12th century, new centers arose: in the northeast of Rus' - Vladimir, which became the capital of the Rostov-Suzdal land, and in the southwest - Galich, which became the capital of the Peremyshl-Terebovol land.
By the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' consisted of one and a half dozen principalities or, in chronicle terminology, “lands”, in most of which there was an intensive process of formation of smaller appanage principalities. At the same time, the lands themselves still maintained territorial stability, and several potential centers of unification were ripening among them.
In the second half of the 13th century, connections between the lands, from political contacts and trade to mention of each other in chronicles, reached a minimum. Most of the lands underwent further severe fragmentation. According to some estimates, the total number of principalities reached 250. Kyiv fell into decay. It was ruled by local provincial princes who did not claim all-Russian supremacy.
The Vladimir-Suzdal and Chernigov principalities broke up into independent fiefs. Like earlier Kyiv on the scale of all Rus', Vladimir and Chernigov ceased to be residences of princes and turned into symbolic senior tables. The Smolensk principality avoided fragmentation, but it turned out to be greatly weakened and did not have the human resources for expansion. Its result was the division of the principality between Kingdom of Poland(captured Galician land) and Grand Duchy of Lithuania(captured the Volyn land). Thus, all the old players left the arena, and principalities that had not previously played a noticeable role became new unifying centers.
Kyiv continued to be the nominal capital of Rus'. Principality of Kiev was considered as a common possession of the princely family, and all the main branches of the Rurikovichs had the right to receive tables in it. A similar situation was typical for Novgorod. He also did not have his own dynasty and invited princes from different lands, while seriously limiting their rights. The presence of several “all-Russian” tables served as an important unifying factor, since the struggle for them led to the intertwining of the interests of all Russian lands.
The natural course of centralization was interrupted Mongol invasion(1237–1240), after which all Russian principalities came under the supreme authority of the Golden Horde. The further unification of Russian lands took place under difficult conditions. All major Russian princes were summoned to the Horde and recognized the power of the Mongols. Prince of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in 1243 he received a label from Khan Batu for all of Rus' and sent his governor to Kyiv. But after the death of Yaroslav, who was poisoned in the capital Mongol Empire Karakorum in 1246, two labels were issued to his sons: Andrey - to the Vladimir principality, and Alexander Nevsky- to Kyiv and Novgorod. In Southern Rus' the only strong prince remained Daniil Romanovich Galitsky. In 1250–1253 he conquered the Yatvingian lands and Black Rus', and in 1254 he received the title of King of Rus' from the hands of the Pope. Daniel with his own forces opposed the Horde and inflicted a number of defeats on its army, thus becoming the first Russian ruler who managed to knock out the Mongol-Tatars from his land. However, the Galicia-Volyn principality failed to get rid of Horde dependence. In the Galicia-Volyn principality in 1325, the Romanovich family was removed from power, which marked the beginning war for the Galician-Volyn inheritance.
IN North-Eastern Rus' this process was led by Grand Duchy of Moscow, which emerged victorious in a fierce competition with Grand Duchy of Tver and other principalities and became the basis of a centralized Russian state. On a smaller scale, other great principalities were also engaged in expanding their possessions at the expense of their neighbors: Ryazan, Smolensk, Bryansk, Tver, but all of them ultimately lost their independence and became part of Moscow or Lithuania. By the end of the 15th century, the state reached its maximum territorial expansion. From that time on, the struggle for the heritage of Ancient Rus' was conceptualized by the Moscow princes as an official political program.
Basic principles of street naming.
Toponym is a word of Greek origin, consisting of two parts: topos - “place” and onoma, or onima - “name”. Consequently, toponyms are the proper names of rivers, lakes, swamps, settlements, individual parts of the relief, or otherwise geographical names.
Toponymy is a science that studies geographical names (toponyms), the history of their appearance, transformation and use. Toponymy refers to sections of another, broader science - onomastics, which studies all proper names.
Oronyms – names of mountains (from Old Greek ὄρος – hill, mountain).
Urbanonyms – intracity facilities (from lat. Urbanus – urban).
Agoronyms are the names of squares (from ancient Greek ἀγορά - area).
Godonyms are street names (from ancient Greek ὁδός - path, road, street, channel).
Potamonyms are the names of rivers (from the ancient Greek ποτᾰμός - river).
Limnonyms are the name of any lake or pond.
Pelagonyms are the name of the sea or part of it.
One of the first systematic principles of street naming - geographical - was found only in the middle XIX century in St. Petersburg. For the streets of the dynamically growing city, names were given according to the cities of Russia and the Baltic provinces. Before the October Revolution, a settlement was named after the church that was erected in it (Blagoveshchenskaya (today Komsomolskaya), Pokrovskaya (today Oktyabrskaya). Often cities and villages are named after the rivers on which they are based (the First and Second Rivers). Names professions (Engineering, Construction), nationality (Russian, Uzbek), trading place or subject of trade and production, names of local animals or plants (Ginseng, Tiger), direction of the cardinal directions (Western, Northern) or toponymic connections with other regions could also become (Kuril, Chukotka).
Currently, names for new cities and towns are given and assigned at meetings of special or permanent commissions. Usually several names are discussed and one is chosen, which is based on the characteristic, most important feature of the named object.
We wondered if there was a connection between our city and other cities, and maybe others geographical objects countries? An analysis of the names of streets in the city of Vladivostok showed that the names of some streets reflected the names of rivers, lakes, mountains, islands and cities of our country. We correlated these names with the federal districts of Russia in order to understand where and what kind of borrowings there are more. As a result of the work done, we found out that more borrowings of water objects (hydronyms) came from the names of the Northwestern Federal District (8 objects), second place was shared by the Siberian and Far Eastern Federal Districts. The majority of borrowed toponyms (city names) came from the names of the Far Eastern Federal District, with the second place being among the toponyms of the Siberian Federal District. Our next step was to determine what kind of objects were chosen as names for the streets of our city, what they are famous for. The results of the work are presented in Appendices 1 and 2. We also looked at proverbs. Among the huge number, we chose those that are related to the cities and rivers of Russia. It turned out that not all cities and rivers, the names of which are represented in the names of the streets of our city, are represented in the proverbs. Perhaps this is due to the fact that some cities are quite young, people have not yet had time to create any proverbs about them. The results of working with proverbs are presented in Appendix 3.
Next, we decided to conduct a sociological survey to determine whether the lyceum students knew their city and their country (questionnaire in Appendix 4). We surveyed students in grades 5–8 and 11. The questionnaire contained both closed questions (with a choice of answers) and open ones. Students in grades 5–7 found it difficult to answer open questions (Which streets named after rivers/seas/mountains in our city do you know?) but answered closed questions better: students in grades 6B and 7B showed the best results. It also turned out to be difficult to answer multiple-choice questions: firstly, the names of some rivers are unfamiliar to students; secondly, the inattention of the respondents played an important role. Many 11th grade students noted that instead of correct answers to the questions “There is no street named after which river/sea/city/lake in our city,” they chose names that are in the city, that is, they chose the opposite answer to the correct one.
We also asked participants in a sociological survey to guess which cities in the country have streets with the name of our city in order to understand whether there is another thread connecting Vladivostok with other cities in the country. The options were as follows: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nefteyugansk, Ulyanovsk, Vladikavkaz. Only three of the suggested options turned out to be correct: Khabarovsk, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Ussuriysk (Vladivostok highway). During our research, we found out that there is a street with the name of our city (Vladivostokskaya, Vladivostokovskaya) in 13 cities: Dalnerechensk, Izhevsk, Kaliningrad, Lipetsk, Nakhodka, Novorossiysk, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Orenburg, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Ussuriysk, Ufa, Khabarovsk .
In general, however, the survey results showed that the relationship between one city and the whole country is not noted by all respondents: primary schoolchildren still know very little and hometown, and the geography of the entire country. The older the class of respondents, the higher the knowledge about the city and country.
You can truly know yourself only through knowledge of the world around you. Travel helps a person with this. Everyone is free to choose their own path: someone, tired of the noise of the metropolis, goes to nature - to test themselves and return to the roots of human life. Someone, on the contrary, rushes to places with a developed information space, where every little thing is important, where the brain works to its fullest. Many begin to study the surrounding reality from their small homeland, delve into the history of the region or region, and study the surrounding area. As a rule, the next stage of learning about the world is a real trip around your home country.
What were the names of cities in Russia
The centuries-old history of Russia is filled with many significant further development events. These include the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Ermak’s campaign against Siberia and its annexation to the territory of the Russian state, the window cut through to Europe by Peter the Great, and so on. These facts are reflected in the Russian language. For example, the words “caravan”, “watermelon”, “noodles”, “fog”, to which today’s people are so accustomed, were borrowed from the Tatar language. The "camp" and "resort" were once imported from modern-day Germany. "Marmalade" and "actor" came from France in the nineteenth century. All of the above belongs to the category of ordinary words often used in colloquial speech. We don’t think about their origin, just as we don’t think about the origin of city names.
Similar historical situations influenced place names. So, “Derbent” is the Persian word for “narrow gate”. “Chita” is understood in the same way as “read”; it is translated from Sanskrit as “comprehend” or “know”. "Murom" comes from the Cheremis "murom", which means "place of fun and songs." "Perm" translated from Vepsian means "distant land". “Ufa” literally means “dark water” from Bashkir. There are many similar examples, and, digging a little deeper, you begin to understand how connected the names of cities are and the history, culture and traditions of the peoples who lived in this place.
Other countries can also boast of an eventful history - their toponyms have a special sense of humor. In America, for example, there is a town whose name translates as “why”. In Canada, you can stumble upon “an abyss of bison falling to their death.” The name of the German commune seems to call tourists to action - it translates as “kissing”. It is worth noting that names of cities named after the founder also exist abroad. In America you can stumble upon small town ok Quincy, named after John Quincy Adams, who served as Secretary of State of the United States of America.
“Mother Russia is wide and vast” - that’s what our ancestors said. The newly-made tourist is convinced of this. The number of settlements, small and large, numbers in the thousands. This is where the real discoveries begin regarding uncommon place names. What are the villages of Taz and Bolshiye Pupsy, the Tukhlyanka River, the village of Takoye worth... Often geographical names reflect the history of a place. So, the name (Kharkov region) comes from the Tatar “guzun” - crossing. Knowing this, you can understand that much earlier there was an important crossing over the local river in this place. However, only linguists can draw such conclusions. More interesting for ordinary people are the names of cities named after the founder, because they indicate a specific historical figure.
People's love
Geographical names always carry some specific meaning. Like the names of important city streets, cities named after a specific person include recognition of that person's merits. Sometimes you have to sacrifice historical place names. This fact demonstrates the deep respect of the residents of the locality for the bearer of the name given to their small homeland. In this regard, a reasonable question arises: which cities are named after people?
Long live the revolution!
Most of the renaming of cities and towns dates back to the twentieth century. The leaders of the revolutionary movement enjoyed the greatest respect at that time, and, according to popular opinion, it was their surnames that should adorn the names of settlements. A wave of changes in toponyms swept the RSFSR; in this regard, it is appropriate to answer the previously asked question (which cities are named after people) with a list:
- Leningrad (formerly St. Petersburg);
- Ulyanovsk (formerly Simbirsk);
- village of Karl Marx (located in the Tver region);
- Sverdlovsk (previously and currently - Yekaterinburg);
- Kuibyshev (previously and currently - Samara);
- Kaliningrad (formerly Königsberg);
- Dzerzhinsk (formerly Rastyapino, Chernoe);
- Frunze (currently Bishkek);
- Makhachkala (formerly Anzhi-Kala).
Thus, the origin of the names of Russian cities is not always purely etymological in nature. There are also known renamings associated with the life and activities of significant persons. For example, the names of V. G. Belinsky and A. S. Pushkin were assigned to cities to which the data are directly related. Khabarovsk is named after the seventeenth-century explorer who discovered the city. To the title Ukrainian city Pereyaslav later added the surname of Bogdan Khmelnytsky, who contributed to the reunification of Ukraine and the Russian Empire.
Names of cities after the name of the founder
As mentioned above, during the journey through Russian Federation you can discover some incredible, at first glance, geographical names. In addition to funny and vaguely familiar toponyms, formed from borrowed words or from the surnames of famous historical figures, there are also proper names. It is logical to assume that they were named after their founder. Obviously, the origin of the names of Russian cities can have very different backgrounds.
Yuriev-Polsky
This provincial town in the north of the Vladimir region is a treasure trove of Russian cultural and historical heritage. It was founded in the middle of the twelfth century by the great Moscow prince - Yuri Dolgoruky. The name of the city came from the name of the founder. An example of a description of the area surrounding the town is “Russian pole-field,” which is why this original Russian settlement has a rare compound name. One of the main attractions of Yuryev-Polsky is St. George's Cathedral - a unique architectural monument of Ancient Rus', the date of construction of which dates back to the second quarter of the thirteenth century. Of no less importance is the Archangel Michael Monastery, on whose territory there are ancient churches.
The churches of Nikita the Martyr and the Intercession also deserve close attention. Holy Mother of God. The construction of the complex of two buildings dates back to the end of the eighteenth century, which is what distinguishes the churches from other architectural monuments. And if the Church of the Intercession was built in the image of traditional Russian cathedrals, then the Church of Nikita the Martyr is a building designed in the Empire style, with a red brick bell tower that towers over the entire city.
Vladimir
Like the previous one, it is part of the Golden Ring of Russia. It is named after Vladimir Monomakh, whose reign dates back to the eleventh century. Vladimir is located in the region of two hundred kilometers east of Moscow. He faced many trials that predetermined the course of the history of the entire country. The fact is that Vladimir was one of the most influential cities of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation. In those days, large administrative centers fought with each other for power in the state. In the end, Moscow won. However, this majestic city also lay claim to the title of capital.
The centuries-old history of Vladimir is reflected in the rich culture of the city. Now thousands of tourists come here to see with their own eyes the Assumption Cathedral, built back in the twelfth century, the Golden Gate, which is rightfully considered a masterpiece of architecture of Ancient Rus', the Patriarchal Gardens, the Water Tower... The list of attractions in Vladimir is not limited to this, the city has something to show the whole world !
Saint Petersburg
The list of city names named after the founder includes cultural capital Russia - St. Petersburg. The first stone on the site of the future city was laid by Peter the Great himself, now in that very place stands the majestic Peter-Pavel's Fortress. It is worth noting that the first emperor of the Russian Empire named the city not by his own name, but by the name of his patron - the Apostle Peter. Nevertheless, everyone who encounters St. Petersburg understands the city's connection with the great reformer of the Russian state. And listing even a small part of St. Petersburg’s attractions will take more than one page - it’s better to see everything with your own eyes.
Temryuk
This small city is located at the mouth of the Kuban, not far from Krasnodar, on the shore Sea of Azov. This settlement was founded by Prince Temryuk, the son-in-law of Ivan the Terrible. Currently, Temryuk is famous for its breathtaking landscapes and mud volcanoes. Many travelers go to this town to find peace of mind: fields, sea, forests - what else does a person need to feel truly free?
Yaroslavl
There are many names of cities named after the founder in Russia. Yaroslavl is not the last on this list. It was founded back in the eleventh century by Yaroslav the Wise, who was so nicknamed for his significant contribution to the culture of the country. In terms of reputation, the city is in no way inferior to its founder - countless attractions clearly demonstrate how old and majestic Yaroslavl is. Travelers from all over the world come here to see the Church of Peter and Paul, the “House with Lions”, Peter and Paul Park, which carefully preserves the legacy of the great Emperor Peter Alekseevich.
But in Yaroslavl, modernity is in no way inferior historical heritage. So, here you can see the unique Yaroslavl Zoo - the only landscape type zoo in Russia. The Yaroslavl station building is an architectural complex - a monument of modern monumental art. The Yaroslavl Museum-Reserve is rightly called the heart of the city. Located in the very center, it carefully protects the oldest Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery and several churches. Antiquity side by side with modernity - this is what real Yaroslavl is.
Everywhere you look there is discovery
The variety of geographical names in Russia is amazing. A person who goes on a trip to his native country for the first time constantly discovers something new. Here are funny toponyms, whose meaning can only be understood by looking in an etymological dictionary or a historical reference book, and a settlement whose name changed depending on the course of modern history, and the name of a city after the name of its founder... The list is long. It’s better to take the time and see it all with your own eyes.
The emergence of skilled agriculture put on the agenda the creation of new forms of human social existence. It was necessary to organize the collective labor of large masses of people, organized protection of their property (which included, of course, agricultural implements and grain funds), and the creation of special centers for crafts and trade. All these tasks could only be performed by fortified urban-type settlements, which arose approximately at the beginning of the 4th millennium BC in three places on the planet: on the coast of the Indus River (modern Pakistan), in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates (modern Iraq) and in Nile River Valley (Egypt). It was in these three regions that the first urban civilizations subsequently emerged.
The settlements in question - the so-called NOMS - differed in many ways from the modern city. Their main population were farmers, who in case of danger could take refuge behind the fortress walls here. In the center of the nome there was a temple that served as the “dwelling” of the patron god. At the temple there were warehouses where equipment and seed grain were stored. The priests of the temple not only performed the corresponding cult, but also supervised agricultural work. This was natural: the priests kept a calendar, observed the luminaries, and made sacrifices to the gods, on whom the future harvest depended. The beginning and end of large collective works in those days were always accompanied by solemn religious ceremonies. Part of the harvest was again used as a sacrifice to the gods. From this it is clear that the temple had to play a huge role in the life of the nome: in essence, the nome was a tightly knit religious and agricultural community. The working community was a new, more progressive form of human society compared to the tribe or clan. The territory of the nome included not only the settlement itself, but also all the communal lands around it.
In this proto-city, society enters the first stage of stratification: people are now divided not by gender, but by labor affiliation. Arises social inequality and with him - phenomenon of power. Real power has two forms: secular power (military leader) and spiritual power (chief priest). The military leader - he later becomes king - relies on his fighting squad, an army called upon to protect the nome from attacks. The heads of clans and senior warriors (future aristocracy) make up council of elders- an advisory and advisory body under the military leader. It is, so to speak, a relic of primitive democracy: this council makes the most important decisions, and sometimes has the right to choose: it removes or appoints military leaders. For their part, the priests represent a professional group of temple servants, whose actions are very different from the shamanic practices of a primitive tribe. Instead of sacred ecstasy there are clearly defined duties, instead of ritual there is a firmly established formal ritual. Priests have enormous influence on the souls of believers; secular authorities are obliged to listen to them. Of course, there are often conflicts between these forms of emerging power, the outcome of which can be different: either military power completely subjugates spiritual power, or spiritual power takes into its own hands all the most important functions of government. The first option subsequently leads to various forms of monarchical despotism, to the so-called “Caesaropapism”, the second - to theocracy. Often, two powers coexist peacefully, observing an unspoken agreement on the division of responsibilities. As for the council of elders, this form of power is abolished already in the early stages of statehood throughout the world, with rare exceptions.
The top nobility (including priests and warriors) does not participate in productive work; this becomes possible due to the fact that the technical level of production of vital goods at the new stage already makes it possible to produce surplus product, sufficient to feed people in power or supporting power.
No matter how primitive it may be in comparison with the modern city, the forms of work and life in it are incomparably more complex than in a primitive tribe. They are more complicated, firstly, because in a class society, property inequality naturally arises. He who has more power also has more property. She needs to be protected; state institutions are needed to guarantee its safety. Secondly, emerging craft production and trade require organization and regulation, i.e. again, authorities are needed to regulate their activities. A whole cohort of managers and work supervisors arises, transmitting the orders of the leader: these people subsequently form the class of officials. All this together contributes to the emergence first statehood.
Special mention should be made of the complex of beliefs that arises and is formed simultaneously with the emergence of the nome. Here we are no longer dealing simply with primitive beliefs, but with a developed religious system known as Paganism. We are unable to trace in detail the process by which spirits receive names, become persons, and are thus transformed into pagan deities; the fetish turns into an idol, the temple into a temple, and the shaman into a priest. This probably happened gradually over many centuries. We can only note the qualitative difference between the old and new belief systems.
If primitive man dealt with nameless spirits of the elements, then in pagan religions the objects of worship are personified beings (gods), who play their own role in the universe, usually having their own mythological “history” and even their own character traits. The scope of their action is by no means limited to the ability to control natural elements. They patronize various objects and forms of activity related to the human world: the gods of crafts, wisdom, writing and counting, hearth, war, love, etc. appear. Among them, the patron gods of noma play a special role, from whom they expect help in protecting themselves from enemies.
Communication with these gods is not limited to the simplest sacrifices and spells; a complex system of rites and rituals arises, for which a special temple is needed (it plays the role dwellings of god) and a whole staff of priests serving him, among whom there is a hierarchy based on the difference in power and degree of dedication.
Ordinary believers participate only in mass rituals, which often take the form of symbolic performances - mysteries. Some of these mysteries may be secret (only for initiates), some take the form of large-scale folk festivals.
The emergence of nomes and their transformation into ancient cities radically contributed to the growth of human self-awareness. Having fenced off the surrounding nature with a fortress wall, man felt his unique significance in this world, his separateness, isolation. This served, on the one hand, as an incentive to explore nature, and on the other, to the growth of self-awareness. No longer feeling like just a part of nature, man got the opportunity to look at it as subject of study. From the womb of universal life, from the maternal abode, inseparable from the inhabitant, nature turned into an “object”, and man into an outside observer. This was a psychological prerequisite for the subsequent emergence of science.
At the same time, man began to become interested in the problems of his life, his mysterious fate in this world, his soul, the work of his consciousness... Having ceased to be a part of wild nature, man little by little discovered that he himself could serve as a subject for research and knowledge... As a result, the beginnings of philosophy appeared . Humanity, as if waking up from a many-thousand-year sleep, began to take the first steps on the path of spiritual evolution.
The invention of writing provided extremely great assistance to man in the matter of his self-awareness. Writing arose throughout the world for only one practical purpose - to keep track of royal and temple treasures. But very quickly written language began to include words and concepts far from utilitarian purposes; At a certain stage, it became possible to record the plots of myths, proverbs, sayings, and religious hymns. Thus, humanity received the opportunity to record its spiritual achievements in writing.
In parallel with this, the development and improvement of the arts took place: the construction of temples laid the foundation for architecture, vase painting and wall frescoes advanced painting, temple dances acquired plastic beauty, music was enriched with new, more complex chants, a variety of stringed and wind instruments arose, and most importantly - the appearance of specialists in all these areas, who could pass on the secrets of their skills to inheritance. Art increasingly mastered the laws of beauty, the play of forms became more and more significant in it; it lost its originally inherent magical character and became a means of aesthetic pleasure.
All this taken together, coupled with the improvement of forms of work, management methods, living conditions, etc. created the preconditions for the emergence of the first city-states. In the course of history, they entered into struggle among themselves, the strongest gained the upper hand and served as unifying centers; This is how the first significant civilizations arose (around the turn of the 4th-3rd millennia BC). They arose in the same three regions that we have already talked about, but we have very little information about the state in the Indus Valley, while enough decipherable sources have been preserved about Sumer and Egypt.
city state) - a form of pre-industrial state based on a single city, for example, the Greek polis. In their earliest forms (the numerous city-states of the Middle East and the Mediterranean), these states were small. However, they represented a significant advance in the concentration of political and economic power compared to previous societies. This is due to their ability to expand their hegemony into surrounding areas, sometimes becoming the basis of such large empires as Athens and Rome. It was characteristic of some city-states that they relied on a democratic community of citizens (for example, in Athens - on everyone capable of bearing arms). They were also the main source of important "modern" political ideas and ideologies, not least because the rigid division between citizens and non-citizens (including the emergence of an urban proletariat) led to new class stratification. See also Ancient society.
