Religion in the first two centuries of the Empire The most important element of the state religion during this period was the cult of emperors. As already noted, the imperial cult in Rome was attached to the cult of the Lares and Mans, and in the provinces it was associated with the veneration of former rulers.

In 1487, on behalf of King João II, his close associate Pedro da Covilhã, who knew several languages ​​of the peoples of the East and was familiar with the life and culture of Muslims, accompanied by the nobleman Affonso de Paiva, arrived in Cairo. He met Arab merchants from Fez and Telesmenes and walked with them through the sands of the Arabian Peninsula. Then he sailed across the Red Sea to Aden. There he sent his companion Affonso di Paiva to Ethiopia to look for a Christian state, about which constant rumors reached Europe. Covilha reached India on an Arab ship, traveled around Indian ports, visited the cities of East Africa and Madagascar and returned to Cairo with a lot of valuable information. Covilha described to the king all his observations in India and other countries and said that the Portuguese caravels that trade in Guinea could easily pass into the eastern seas, sailing from one country to another heading to the islands of Madagascar and Sofola. Then they will be able to approach Calicut in India, for, as he learned, there is sea everywhere here. In Cairo, he did not wait for his companion and wanted to return to Portugal, but the king sent two merchants with orders not to return until a Christian country was found. The king needed to give his campaigns of conquest not only economic, but also ideological justification. Covilha soon traveled to Ethiopia, where its inhabitants did profess the Christian faith, but it differed significantly from the faith professed by European Catholics. The Abyssinian Negus Alexander did not let Covilian go home, and the Negus's successor made him the ruler of the region. In 1520, Covilha met with the participants of the next Portuguese expedition and told a member of the Portuguese embassy in detail about the results of his research in Asia and Africa.
Portugal's main rival for the seizure of new lands was Spain. The rivalry intensified after Christopher Columbus discovered the sea route to America in 1492,17 which became a turning point in the history of all mankind. The Portuguese considered the discovery of America a threat to their interests and even began to prepare an expedition to seize lands, discovered by Columbus. Pope Alexander II signed a bull in 1492 to resolve the controversy,

according to which a demarcation line was established between Portugal and Spain, which ran 100 leagues (about 500 km) west of the Cape Verde Islands. The Portuguese challenged the pope's decision on the location of the demarcation line, and in 1494, in Tordesillas, Portugal and Spain signed a treaty, according to which the border between the spheres of influence of Portugal and Spain was clarified. From now on, it took place 370 leagues (about 1850 km) west of the Cape Verde Islands in the Atlantic. The Pope approved the treaty. 35 years later in Zaragoza, as a continuation of the treaty in Tordesillas, the eastern border of the spheres of influence of Portugal and Spain was established along the Pacific Ocean. Asia and Africa fell into the sphere of influence of Portugal; the sphere of influence of Spain included the American continent. The division of the world into spheres of influence with the blessing of the Pope allowed European countries to begin conquering new lands under the pretext of converting non-Christian peoples to Christianity. The creation of colonial empires was covered up by the ideas of Christians' responsibility before God for the fate of mankind.
In the summer of 1497, four ships, led by the court nobleman Vasco da Gama, Vasco da Gama, on behalf of King Manoel, sailed around Africa to the Arab city of Malinda. They entered into an alliance with his sultan, took the famous navigator Ahmed ibn Majid as a pilot and on May 20, 1498 dropped anchor off the Indian city of Calicut, which, according to Afanasy Nikitin, was the pier of the entire Indian Sea. With the permission of the local ruler, the Zamorin, the Portuguese began to buy spices, but the Arab merchants, trying to

Routes of three expeditions of Vasco da Gama
to get rid of competitors in the delivery of spices and other riches of Asia to Europe, the Zamorin and the population were turned against them. The Portuguese had to hastily retreat. However, in September 1499, Vasco da Gama's ships returned to Lisbon with very rich booty. The discovery of the sea route to India by Europeans was a turning point in world history.
The attack of local residents on Vasco da Gama's ships in India became the basis in Lisbon for using military force. And already in April 1500, the Portuguese king sent a flotilla of 13 well-equipped warships to India under the command of Pedro Alvares Cabral. The equatorial current carried Cabral's ships to the coast of Brazil, which the Portuguese considered an island within the Portuguese sphere of influence under the Treaty of Tordesillas. For this reason, on May 1, 1500, Cabral solemnly annexed this land to the Portuguese possessions and a padran was installed on a coastal hill - a stone pillar with a cross and an inscription stating that the possessions of the Portuguese king were located here. A ship was sent to Lisbon with the news of the annexation. On September 13, 1500, Cabral's flotilla anchored off Calicut, expecting a friendly reception. However, local residents, incited by Arab merchants, as well as in response to an attempt by the Portuguese to spread the Christian faith, attacked the trading post and killed 70 of its 100 defenders. Cabral bombarded Calicut, then purchased spices in Cochin and, having captured several Arab ships along the way, returned to Lisbon in 1501.

Subsequently, Portuguese expeditions became regular. In 1501, the expedition of João da Nova, returning to Portugal after purchasing goods in Cochin, was attacked by a large flotilla of Indian and Arab warships. The detachment of Juan da Nova, consisting of four ships, managed to defeat the enemy due to high maneuverability and the presence of fire cannons. Along the way, João da Nova discovered the island of Saint Helena. The Portuguese decided to build fortified fortresses on the way to India and in India itself in order to conquer it and keep it in obedience. In pursuance of this decision, in 1503 Vasco da Gama, officially called the “Admiral of India,” carried out a punitive expedition. His fleet robbed and sank Arab ships, destroyed Calicut, defeated the flotilla of the Calicut Zamorin and, leaving a permanent squadron in the Indian Ocean to rob ships that sailed between India and Egypt, returned to Portugal with enormous booty. At the same time, for the edification of Vasco da Gama, he dealt with the prisoners with sophisticated cruelty. Soon the Portuguese captured the island of Socotra at the entrance to the Gulf of Aden and the Diu fortress on southwest coast India. An Arab historian of the 15th century wrote: “Reinforcements began to come to them from Portugal, and they began to cross the Muslim road, taking prisoners, robbing and forcibly seizing all sorts of ships.” The Viceroy of Portuguese India d'Albuquerque captured the fortress of Goa (1510) and the Iranian port of Hormuz, captured Malacca (1511) and thereby blocked access to the Indian Ocean from the east. The Moluccas - the main supplier of spices - came completely under control Portuguese.
In 1512, the Portuguese captured a Javanese helmsman, whose maps showed the Cape of Good Hope, Portuguese possessions in Africa and Asia, the Red Sea coast, the Maluku Islands, China and other countries. Subsequently, the Portuguese mastered the sea routes in the Indian and Pacific Oceans well. They had information about most of the countries in the region and even had maps of Australia and New Zealand. Extensive knowledge about the countries of the Indian Ocean, where the Portuguese no longer had rivals, and the large number of developed territories presented the Portuguese leadership with an alternative problem: to develop the territory of conquered countries or to maintain their dominance by dominating the seas. The opinion of the group that advocated dominance in the Indian Ocean basin won. Portugal did not have the necessary number of people to develop the territories. The desire to gain supporters by converting them to the Christian faith ended in failure, as clearly demonstrated by the events in Japan after the Portuguese visited it in 1542. The Portuguese concentrated their forces around the Moluccas, India and Africa. The Portuguese Viceroy of India, who was located in Goa, had five governors governing Mozambique, Hormuz, Muscat, Ceylon and Malacca. By 1530, the Portuguese Empire included: the islands of Cape Verde, the Azores, the island of Madeira; most of Brazil; fortress settlements in West and East Africa; long stretches of the coast of Angola and Mozambique; support bases in the Indian Ocean: Hormuz, Goa, Calicut and Colombo; scattered around Far East trading posts, including in the Moluccas archipelago, Celebes, Java, Macau and Malacca.
Thanks to their dominance on sea routes, the Portuguese had a monopoly on goods that were in great demand in Europe. Portugal formed the priority of the interests of the European elite and, above all, interest in the discovery of new lands, in completely new uses scientific knowledge and practical confirmation of the proposition that the Earth is spherical. Portugal's leadership also emerged in the creation of technical means that are inaccessible to other countries. The combination of national will with enterprise and the desire to conquer foreign lands under the auspices of the Holy Church allowed this small people stand on a short time the political vanguard of Europe, to begin a new page in world politics. The entire 15th and early 16th centuries were Portugal's finest hours, which allowed it to take its rightful place in world history. Subsequently, the greed of the king's viceroys, the cruel treatment of conquered peoples and attempts to impose Catholicism caused general resistance. In the mid-16th century, Indians began to unite against the Portuguese. In 1567, an alliance of all rajas came out against the Portuguese, and in 1578 an uprising broke out on the islands of Ceylon and Amboina. All these reasons were subsequently aggravated by the fact that the resulting wealth was not used to modernize their own industry and intensify economic activity. As contemporaries noted, the Portuguese subsequently lived from one caravan of ships with overseas booty to another. With their arrival, they perked up and showed increased activity. The first greatest colonial empire gave way on the world stage to stronger colonial predators - Spain, the Netherlands and England, which greatly contributed to the decline of Portugal's role in world history.
However, the technological innovation of artisans, industrialists, scientists, the enterprise of merchants and knights who turned into sailors, and the political foresight of the best representatives of the elite allowed Portugal to determine avant-garde development paths for a long time European countries and peoples. The successes achieved allowed Portugal to withstand intense rivalry with Spain and participate in the formation of the world political system.

Portugal is one of the most famous maritime empires and colonial states in world history, whose system of colonies collapsed only in the second half of the 20th century. The history of the country is full of drama, great conquests, associated with the reign of great kings and the spread of European culture to different parts of the world. Modern Portugal continues to attract the attention of scientists, and tourists choose the country as a holiday destination to explore historical and cultural attractions.

Geographical position

Portugal is located on the Iberian Peninsula, bordered to the east and north by Spain, which has been Portugal's rival in Europe for centuries. Especially in modern times and the period of great geographical discoveries. Western and southern borders are washed Atlantic Ocean. Portugal has jurisdiction over the Madeira archipelago and the Azores.

The capital of the state is one of ancient cities world - Lisbon. Archaeologists and historians have established that the first human settlements appeared here back in 1200 BC. e.

Ancient period

The history of Portugal and its ancient inhabitants began in the Paleolithic, which is confirmed by numerous archaeological finds. These are primarily stone axes, knives, and ceramics. In the upper reaches of the Tagus River, or Tagus, traces of human presence in the Pyrenees were found. The remains and finds may date back to 300 thousand years BC. e.

When the Mesolithic era began, tribes of hunters and gatherers began to move to Portugal and settled in the Tagus Valley. Neolithic sites were found in the province of Estremadura, and finds have already been discovered that indicate that people were engaged in cattle breeding. In another region of Portugal, Alentejo, Neolithic megalithic structures were found.

IN Bronze Age people were engaged in the production of copper products, which were sold to other regions of Europe.

Migrations and Roman conquest

In the 2nd–1st millennia BC, in connection with the movements of people across the Iberian Peninsula, the Iberian tribes, who lived in eastern Spain, moved to the territory of Portugal. Following them, the inhabitants of Carthage and Andalusia began to move here. In 1200 BC. e. Phoenician colonies appeared here. In 600 BC. e. The ancient Celts also penetrated into Portugal and, like other peoples, had a huge influence on the culture and history of the region and its inhabitants. The Celts mixed and assimilated with the Iberians and other tribes.

In the 6th century. BC e. southwestern regions Iberian Peninsula settled by the Lusitanian tribe, who successfully defeated the Celts and began to conquer Portugal. The Lusitanians put up worthy resistance in the 2nd century. BC e. to the Romans, who at that time began to attack the Portuguese Atlantic coast. The last outbreak of the Lusitanian struggle against the Romans was the uprising, which lasted from 147 to 139. BC e. It was suppressed, after which the Lusitanians and their territory became part of the Roman Empire. Portugal became the province of Lusitania, whose population began to undergo processes of Romanization; most of the Lusitanians and other tribes became slaves.

Creation of a kingdom

Roman rule lasted until the mid-5th century. n. e. They began to be forced out of Portugal by barbarian tribes: Vandals, Alans, Suevi. The latter captured the northwestern regions of the Iberian Peninsula, creating a kingdom. Galicia and Portugal were included in its composition. The Suevian kingdom lasted only until 585, when, after capturing the south of Portugal, the Visigoths invaded the territory of the barbarian kingdom. It was they who connected the south and north of Portugal within the borders of one kingdom. The Visigoths fought stubbornly against other barbarian tribes, as well as against the Romans, which caused civil unrest. Gradually, complete assimilation of Gothic and Roman law took place, and a single code of laws was developed, which were used by representatives of one nation, known as the Goths.

The population of the kingdom was divided into three groups:

• Nobles.
• Free.
• Slaves, who in turn were divided into different gradations.

Belonging to one or another social class was determined by birthright. An extensive clientele system was also widespread, according to which free members of society sought the patronage of the nobles. This allowed clients to receive funds for living. The nobles seized Gothic territories and lands and distributed them to their associates as benefices.

Arab influence

At the beginning of the 8th century. Portugal began to be captured by the Arabs, who contributed to the development of feudal relations. As a result of this, already in the 9th–10th centuries. the kingdom reached the peak of its economic and cultural development. The Spaniards and Portuguese sought refuge from the Arabs in the mountains, where they created outposts to fight the Arabs. Attacks on the latter were successful, especially in the 11th century, when the Umayyad caliphate collapsed and internecine struggle began between its parts.

At the same time, the king of Leon and Castile, Ferdinand the Great, gradually began to capture many cities of Portugal, for example Porto, Coimbra. From the name “Porto” the name of Portugal arose, whose rulers were both the Umayyads and the Spaniards. In 1095, Henry of Burgundy, who married the daughter of Alfonso the Sixth, took the title "Count of Portugal". Under his rule, Lisbon became a major center of trade, with important trade routes passing through. In the 12th century. The first legislative assemblies, called “Cortes,” were formed, and a class monarchy began to form.

Portugal during the Enlightenment

In the 13th–14th centuries. The feudal struggle intensified in the state. Not only ordinary citizens fought against the nobles, but also the ruling dynasty, which wanted to limit the rights of the feudal lords.

During the Enlightenment, the following changes occurred in the internal life of Portugal:

• Remote regions were populated.
• Monasteries, military orders and large feudal lords retained plots of land to cultivate.
• Uncultivated lands were given over to pastures or distributed to peasants.
• There was a change of dynasty. In 1383, the last representative of the Burgundian dynasty died. This caused the outbreak of the Portuguese Civil War. The new ruler of the country was the Master of the Order of Aviz, Juan, who was supported by the Cortes in the elections.

History of the country in the 15th–17th centuries.

The clan nobility began to lose its position in the 15th century, as the nobility who served at the king's court became stronger. The monarchy in Portugal became so strong that it became absolute. As a result, the country's foreign policy intensified. First, Portuguese influence spread to West Africa, and then to the east of the African continent, India, Southeast Asia, and Brazil.

From 1580, Portugal came under the influence of Spain, which is considered the most tragic period in the history of the Portuguese Kingdom. The Spanish king Philip, like his successors, sought to destroy the nationality of the captured Portugal.

A revolt against Spanish rule occurred in 1640, which began on December 1st. Two weeks later, the coronation of the Portuguese King John took place, and in early January 1641 the first convening of the Cortes was held.

John, and then his son Alfonso the Sixth tried to protect Portugal as much as possible from the Spaniards and protect the colonies from their influence. At the same time, a war broke out in Brazil, where the Portuguese were opposed by the Dutch, who were driven out of South America. But they settled on the island of Ceylon and began to displace the Portuguese from India and Southeast Asia. Only Diu, Goa, and Macau harbor remained in Portugal in the Asian part of Eurasia.

Despite the economic decline and crisis, John and Alphonse the Sixth managed to stabilize the internal situation in the country. This was due not only to successful reforms, but also to the discovery of gold deposits in Brazil.

Portugal in the 18th – early 20th centuries.

The gold rush was only the beginning of a successful 18th century for Portugal. At the end of the 1720s. Diamonds were found in Brazil, which allowed King João the Fifth to develop the following directions in the internal life of the kingdom:

• Art and culture.
• Create academies, libraries, schools.
• Organize public works.
• Patronize architecture.

John the Fifth signed profitable trade agreements with France and England, for which the port of Lisbon was opened. The power of the king increased, the Cortes stopped convening again, and only ministers helped the monarch govern the state.

After João V, his son José formally ruled, but the country was ruled by the minister S. J. di Carvalho. He zealously defended the interests of Portugal and was involved in the administrative streamlining of the internal life of the country. The successful development of the economy ended towards the end of the 1770s, when the flow of gold and diamonds from Brazil began to decline. Trade gradually fell into decline, although attempts were made to revive it through the creation of monopolies.

At the end of the 18th century. There was a deterioration in relations with France, whose rulers wanted to destroy the unfavorable trade alliance between Portugal and England. The ultimatum that France put forward to Portugal regarding restrictions on the rights of the British in trade was rejected by the Portuguese king.

In 1801, France persuaded Spain to attack Portugal, but the countries of the Iberian Peninsula managed to come to an agreement. And then Napoleon the First Bonaparte got down to business. On his orders, the French army began an offensive against Lisbon, from where the royal court was evacuated by ship to Brazil. The Regency Council actually recognized French rule. This situation did not suit England, which began to prepare a military campaign to expel the French from Portugal. This was only possible in 1811.

But the royal family did not return to Lisbon, continuing to remain in Brazil, which became part of the kingdom of Algarve, Brazil and Portugal. In 1820, a revolution began in Porto, which eliminated the rule of the regency council. The revolutionaries began to demand the adoption of a constitution, which the new king João the Sixth did. He returned to Portugal, leaving behind his eldest son Pedro in Brazil. Under his leadership, this Portuguese colony declared independence. Civil war began again in the Kingdom, which ended in 1826. All power was concentrated in the hands of Pedro, who was crowned under the name of Pedro the Fourth. He continued to remain in Brazil, and gave Portugal to his daughter Maria, who was to marry Pedro’s brother, Miguel.

In 1826, a constitution was adopted, which was called the "Charter of Government", confirming the limited power of the king in Portugal. Miguel did not like the adoption of the document, and a confrontation began again between the brothers, which lasted until 1834, when the Cortes chose the daughter of Pedro the Fourth, Maria Second, as queen. She inherited an impoverished country with a destroyed economy, large debts, and problems in the international arena and in trade. The kingdom was in a deep economic and political crisis, which was constantly deepening, since the ruling parties and groups could not agree with each other.

The reign of Maria II was associated with an attempt to limit the power of the nobles, the church, and come to an agreement with the Cortes. All over the kingdom, uprisings broke out all the time, which were both provoked by representatives of different parties and became a reaction to the difficult socio-economic situation in the country.

In 1852, amendments were made to the constitution, which remained in force until 1910. Despite the crisis, in Portugal in the second half of the 19th century. the following transformations were carried out:

• Debts consolidated.
• The government took out new loans.
• Railways were laid and roads were modernized.
• The development of telegraph communications began.
• Ports have been rebuilt.
• Prices were artificially kept down, which hampered the development of agriculture.
• Industrialization proceeded slowly.
• The exploration of Africa has begun.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Problems began again in the political and economic life of the country, relations first with England and then with Germany became more complicated. But after some time, the trade agreement between Portugal and England was restored.

The penultimate ruler-monarch was Carlos I, who was assassinated in 1908, like his eldest son. Dictator João Frank, to whom the king transferred dictatorial powers back in 1906, was removed from governing the country. Over the next year and a half - until 1910, there were seven governments in Portugal under the presence of King Manuel II, who was overthrown in 1910. After this, a republic was established.

Portugal in the 20th–21st centuries.

A new constitution was adopted in 1911, which declared Portugal a parliamentary republic with a president. A parliament consisting of two chambers also appeared.

When did the first one begin? World War, Portugal declared neutrality, and this continued until 1916. In February of this year, ships of the Third Reich were requisitioned in the ports of Portugal and Germany declared war on Portugal. The political forces of the country split into two camps that were at enmity with each other. This worsened the economic situation in the state. By the end of the First World War in Portugal, the internal situation became critical: inflation rose sharply, financial problems worsened, demonstrations constantly took place, governments and ministers changed, and coup attempts were made.

This situation was observed in Portugal both during the Second World War and after its end. Presidents could not stay in power for long.

Portugal emerged from World War II without losses, received loans from England, and the government began to carry out reforms in the economic sphere, which made it possible to begin restoring other areas of life. As a result of this, the merchant fleet was completely modernized and expanded, irrigated agriculture began to develop, industry and energy were restored. In 1949 the country became a member of NATO.

From 1932 to 1968, the permanent Prime Minister of Portugal was António de Salazar, under whose rule the country lost its overseas colonies.

In 1974, the Carnation Revolution broke out in Portugal, which was organized by officers who supported leftist ideology. Participants in the rebellion achieved the end of wars in Africa and the formation of a new government.

In 1976, a new constitution was adopted for Portugal, which was supposed to stop the uprisings in the country and eliminate the crisis.

Ten years later, Portugal joined the European Community, which resulted in the development of a program of extensive economic transformation in transition period. It ended in 1991.

In subsequent years, the country's governments, which were created mainly by socialists, fought inflation, budget deficits, unemployment, and reformed the political system. The Socialists ceded political power to the People's Party and the Social Democrats in the early 2000s. It is too early to talk about stabilizing the economy completely, as well as about the political system. But the introduction of the euro in 2002 and the holding of the European Football Championship contributed to the influx of investment. Reforms were continued in the legislative, legal, and judicial spheres.

The Portuguese conquered the ocean for 100 years before they discovered the route to India, it took them another 15 years to capture all the key positions in the Indian Ocean, and only a century to lose almost all of it

500 years ago, in 1511, they, under the command of Afonso d'Albuquerque, captured the Malay city of Malacca, which controlled the strait from the Indian to the Pacific Ocean. That was the time of the highest power of Portugal, which in just a few decades from a small country that had just gained independence turned into a world empire.

The Great Expansion began in 1415. King João I (reigned 1385–1433), who had been at war for 28 years with Castile, which dreamed of taking over Portugal, needed something to do with his 30,000-strong army, which, having driven out the Spaniards, was left idle. And he decided to capture the Arab Ceuta, located on the African shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. It was rich market town, the final point of the caravan routes crossing North Africa, along which, in addition to textiles, leather goods and weapons, gold was carried from Sudan and Timbuktu (Mali). In addition, Ceuta was used as a base by pirates who ravaged the southern coasts of Spain and Portugal.

On July 25, 1415, two huge flotillas - a total of 220 ships - set out from Porto and Lisbon. The preparations for the campaign were carried out by the fifth son of João I, Infante Enrique, who went down in history as Henry the Navigator. The assault began on August 21. “The inhabitants of the city,” writes the Portuguese historian Oliveira Martins, “were unable to resist the huge army. The sack of Ceuta was a stunning spectacle... The soldiers with crossbows, the village boys taken from the mountains of Traz-os-Montes and Beira, had no idea about the value of the things they destroyed... In their barbaric practicality, they greedily craved only gold and silver. They ransacked houses, descended into wells, broke, pursued, killed, destroyed - all because of the thirst for gold... The streets were littered with furniture, fabrics, covered with cinnamon and pepper, pouring out of piles of bags that the soldiers cut into pieces to see , is there gold or silver, jewelry, rings, earrings, bracelets and other decorations hidden there, and if they were seen on someone, they were often cut off along with the ears and fingers of the unfortunate ... "

August 25, Sunday, at cathedral mosque, hastily turned into christian temple, a solemn mass was served, and John I, who arrived in the captured city, knighted his sons - Henry and his brothers.

In Ceuta, Henry talked a lot with captive Moorish merchants, who told him about distant African countries, where spices grow in abundance, deep rivers flow, the bottom of which is strewn with precious stones, and the palaces of rulers are lined with gold and silver. And the prince literally fell ill with the dream of discovering these fabulous lands. There were two ways there, the merchants reported: by land, through the rocky desert, and by sea, south along the African coast. The first was blocked by the Arabs. The second one remained.

Returning to his homeland, Henry settled at Cape Sagrish. Here, as is clear from the inscription on the memorial stele, “he erected at his own expense a royal palace - a famous school of cosmography, an astronomical observatory and a naval arsenal, and until the end of his life, with amazing energy and endurance, he maintained, encouraged and expanded them for the greatest good of science, religion and the entire human race." Ships were built in Sagrish, new maps were drawn up, and information about overseas countries flowed here.

In 1416, Henry sent his first expedition in search of the Rio de Oro (“golden river”), which was mentioned by ancient authors. However, the sailors were unable to look beyond the already explored areas of the African coast. Over the next 18 years, the Portuguese discovered the Azores and "rediscovered" Madeira (who first reached it is not known for sure, but the first Spanish map on which the island appears dates back to 1339).

The reason for such a slow advance to the south was largely psychological: it was believed that beyond Cape Boujdur (or Bohador, from the Arabic Abu Khatar, which means “father of danger”) a “curled” sea began, which, like a swamp, pulled ships to the bottom .

They talked about “magnetic mountains” that tore off all the iron parts of the ship, so that it simply fell apart, about terrible heat that scorched the sails and people. Indeed, northeast winds are raging in the area of ​​the cape and the bottom is strewn with reefs, but this did not prevent the fifteenth expedition, led by Gil Eanish, Henry’s squire, from advancing 275 km south of Boujdour. In his report, he wrote: “Sailing here is as easy as at home, and this country is rich, and everything is in abundance.” Now things are more fun. By 1460, the Portuguese had reached the coast of Guinea, discovered the Cape Verde Islands, and entered the Gulf of Guinea.

Was Henry looking for a route to India? Most researchers believe not. Not a single document was found in his archive that would indicate this. In general, as far as geography is concerned, almost half a century of activity of Henry the Navigator yielded relatively modest results. The Portuguese were able to reach only the coast of modern Cote d'Ivoire, while the Carthaginian Hanno in 530 BC reached Gabon, which lies much to the south, in one voyage. But thanks to the infante, who, despite financial difficulties (and that Henry received help from his father and older brother - King Duarte I, as well as income from the powerful Order of Christ, of which he was the master), sent and sent expeditions to the south, professionals of the very high level- captains, pilots, cartographers, under whose leadership the caravels with the red crosses of the Order of Christ eventually reached India and China.

Portuguese fort on Gorée Island (Senegal). For four centuries he was one of largest centers slave trade on the west coast of Africa
The names that the Portuguese gave to the lands they discovered speak for themselves: Gold Coast, Cardamom Coast, Coast Ivory, Slave Coast... For the first time, Portuguese merchants had the opportunity to trade overseas goods without intermediaries, which brought them fantastic profits - up to 800%! Slaves were also exported en masse - by the beginning of the 16th century, their total number exceeded 150,000 (most ended up in the service of aristocrats throughout Europe or as farm laborers for Portuguese nobles).

At that time, the Portuguese had almost no competitors: England and Holland were still far behind in maritime affairs. As for Spain, firstly, the Reconquista, which took a lot of energy, had not yet ended and, secondly, it had no move to Africa, since the far-sighted Henry received a bull from Pope Calixtus III in 1456, according to which all African lands beyond the Cape Buzhdur were transferred into the possession of the Order of Christ. Thus, anyone who encroached on them encroached on the church and was worthy of burning. This is exactly what they did with the Spanish captain de Prad, whose ship, full of slaves, was detained near Guinea.

In addition to the lack of competition, Portugal was also pushed towards expansion by the political situation that had developed in the Mediterranean at that time. In 1453, the Turks captured the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, and blocked the route to India by land. They also threaten Egypt, through which there is another route - along the Red Sea. In these conditions, the search for another, purely sea route to South Asia becomes especially urgent. The great-grandson of João I, João II (ruled 1477, 1481–1495), is actively involved in this. The fact that Africa could be circumnavigated from the south was no longer a secret - Arab merchants reported this. It was this knowledge that guided the king when, in 1484, he refused Columbus’s proposal to reach India by the western route across the Atlantic. Instead, in 1487, he sent the expedition of Bartolomeu Dias south, which for the first time rounded the Cape of Storms (later renamed the Cape of Good Hope) and left the Atlantic for the Indian Ocean.

In the same year, João II organized another expedition, a land expedition. He sends Peru da Covilha, his best spy, an expert in Arabic and oriental traditions, to India. Under the guise of a Levantine merchant, da Covilha visited Calicut and Goa, as well as the East African coast, and became convinced that it was quite possible to reach South Asia via the Indian Ocean. John's work was continued by his cousin, Manuel I (ruled 1495–1521). The expedition of Vasco (Vasco) da Gama, sent by him in 1497, first went all the way around Africa to the Malabar (western) coast of India, established contacts with local rulers and returned with a cargo of spices.

Arrival of Vasco da Gama in Calicut on May 20, 1498 (16th-century Flemish tapestry). Samorin of Calicut warmly received the strangers, but was disappointed with the gifts presented to him - he considered them too cheap. This was one of the reasons why Da Gama failed to conclude a trade agreement with the Indians
Now the Portuguese were faced with the task of gaining a foothold in South Asia. In 1500, a flotilla of 13 ships was sent there under the command of Pedro Alvares Cabral (on the way to India, the flotilla deviated too far to the west and accidentally discovered Brazil), who was tasked with concluding trade agreements with the local rajahs. But, like most Portuguese conquistadors, Cabral knew only gun diplomacy. Arriving at Calicut (the main trading port in western India, now Kozhikode), he began by pointing his guns at the city and demanding hostages. Only when the latter were on board the caravel did the Portuguese go ashore. However, their trade went poorly. India is not the wild Ivory Coast: the quality of local products was much higher than the Portuguese (later the Portuguese will begin to purchase goods of the required quality in Holland and thereby greatly contribute to the strengthening of their future competitors). As a result, irritated overseas guests a couple of times forced the Indians to take the goods at the appointed price. In response, the residents of Calicut destroyed the Portuguese warehouse. Then Cabral hanged the hostages, burned all the Indian and Arab ships in the harbor, and fired guns at the city, killing more than 600 people. Then he took the squadron to the cities of Cochin and Kannur, whose rulers were at enmity with Calicut. Having loaded up there with spices (borrowed under the threat of sinking the ships in the harbor), Cabral set off on the return journey. Along the way, he plundered several Arab ports in Mozambique and returned to Lisbon in the summer of 1501. The second “diplomatic” expedition, led by Vasco da Gama, took place in the same spirit a year later.

The "glory" of the Portuguese quickly spread throughout the Malabar coast. Now Lisbon could only establish itself in India by force. In 1505, Manuel I created the office of Viceroy of the Portuguese Indies. The first to take this post was Francisco Almeida. He was guided by the principle he outlined in a letter to the king. In his opinion, it was necessary to strive “for all our strength to be at sea, because if we are strong there, India will be ours... and if we are not strong at sea, fortresses on land will be of little use to us.” " Almeida won the Battle of Diu with the combined fleet of Calicut and Egypt, which did not want to give up its virtual monopoly on trade with India. However, the further we went, the more obvious it became that without creating powerful naval bases The Portuguese fleet will not be able to operate successfully.

The second Indian viceroy, Duke Afonso d'Albuquerque, set this task for himself. In 1506, on the way from Portugal to India, he captured the island of Socotra, which blocks the entrance to the Red Sea, and a year later forced the ruler of the Iranian city of Hormuz, who controlled the entrance to the Persian Gulf, recognize himself as a vassal of the Portuguese king (the Persians tried to resist, but Albuquerque threatened that on the site of the destroyed city he would build a fort with walls made of “Mohammedan bones, nail their ears to the gates and raise his flag on a mountain made of their skulls"). Hormuz was followed by the city of Goa on the Malabar coast. Having captured it in 1510, the viceroy killed almost the entire population there, including women and children, and founded a fortress that became the capital of Portuguese India. Fortresses were also erected in Muscat, Cochin and Kannur.

Goa. Portuguese women at breakfast. Indian artist, 16th century. Apparently, the creator of the picture decided that it was in vain for European beauties to wear closed dresses that hide their charms, and depicted the Portuguese women the way he was accustomed to depicting his compatriots
However, Albuquerque’s ambitions were by no means limited to establishing the power of Portugal in India, especially since many spices did not grow there - they were brought from the East. The Viceroy set out to find and take control shopping centers Southeast Asia, as well as monopolize trade with China. The key to solving both problems was the Strait of Malacca, connecting the Indian and Pacific oceans.

The first Portuguese expedition to Malacca (1509), led by Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, was unsuccessful. The conquistadors were captured by the local sultan. Albuquerque prepared thoroughly for the new campaign: in 1511, he brought 18 ships to the city. On July 26, the armies met on the battlefield. The 1,600 Portuguese were opposed by 20,000 subjects of the Sultan and many war elephants. But the Malays were poorly trained, their units did not cooperate well, so the Christians, who had extensive combat experience behind them, repelled all enemy attacks without much difficulty. The elephants did not help the Malays either - the Portuguese, with the help of long pikes, did not let them close to their ranks and showered them with arrows from crossbows. The wounded animals began to trample the Malay infantry, which completely upset its ranks. The elephant on which the Sultan was sitting was also wounded. Distraught, he grabbed the driver with his trunk and impaled him on his tusks. The Sultan somehow managed to get down to the ground and left the battlefield.

The Portuguese, having won, approached the city fortifications. Before darkness fell, they managed to capture the bridge over the river separating the city from the suburbs. All night they bombarded the central part of Malacca. In the morning the assault resumed; Albuquerque's soldiers broke into the city, but met stubborn resistance there. A particularly bloody battle broke out near the cathedral mosque, which was defended by the Sultan himself, who made his way to his soldiers at night. At some point, the natives began to push back the enemy, and then Albuquerque threw into battle the last hundred soldiers who had previously been in reserve, which decided the outcome of the battle. “As soon as the Moors were expelled from Malacca,” writes the English historian Charles Danvers, “Albuquerque gave permission to plunder the city... He ordered all Malays and Moors (Arabs) to be put to death.”

Now the Portuguese owned the “gateway to the East.” The stones from which the mosques and tombs of the Sultans of Malacca were built were used to build one of the best Portuguese fortresses, called Famosa (“glorious”; its remains - the gates of Santiago - can still be seen today). Using this strategic base, the Portuguese were able to push further east into Indonesia by 1520, capturing the Moluccas and Timor. As a result, Portuguese India turned into a huge chain of fortresses, trading posts, small colonies and vassal states, stretching from Mozambique, where Almeida founded the first colonies, to the Pacific Ocean.

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In 1578, the Portuguese king Sebastian I died in the battle of El Ksar El Kebir (Morocco). The Aviz dynasty, which had ruled since 1385, was cut short, and the grandson of Manuel I, the Spanish king Philip II of Habsburg, laid claim to the throne. In 1580, his troops occupied Lisbon, and Portugal became a Spanish province for 60 years. During this time, the country managed to fall into an extremely deplorable state. Spain first dragged her into a war with her former faithful ally, England. Thus, the Invincible Armada, defeated in 1588 by the British fleet, included many Portuguese ships. Portugal was later forced to fight for its lord in the Thirty Years' War. All this resulted in exorbitant expenses, which primarily affected the Portuguese colonies, which the further they went, the more they became desolate. In addition, although the administration in them remained Portuguese, formally they belonged to Spain and therefore were constantly subject to attacks by its enemies - the Dutch and the British. Those, by the way, learned navigation from the same Portuguese. Thus, the Briton James Lancaster, who led the first English expedition to South Asia (1591), lived for a long time in Lisbon and received a nautical education there. The Dutchman Cornelius Houtmann, who was sent in 1595 to plunder the East Indies, also spent several years in Portugal. Both Lancaster and Houtmann used maps compiled by the Dutchman Jan van Linschoten, who spent several years in Goa.

In the first half of the 17th century, piece after piece was bitten off from the Portuguese possessions: Hormuz, Bahrain, Kannur, Cochin, Ceylon, the Moluccas and Malacca were lost. This is what the Governor of Goa, António Telis de Menezes, wrote to the commandant of Malacca, Manuel de Sousa Coutinho, in 1640, shortly before the fortress was captured by the Dutch: “When I arrived in Goa, I found the galleons half rotten, the treasury without a single real, and a debt equal to 50,000 reais.”

The Dutch fleet approached Malacca on July 5, 1640. The city was bombed, but the walls of the famous Famosa calmly withstood 24-pound cannonballs. Only three months later the Dutch found the weak point of the fortifications - the bastion of San Domingue. After two months of shelling, they managed to make a big hole in it. The Dutch were in a hurry: dysentery and malaria had already killed a good half of their soldiers. True, those besieged due to hunger had no more than 200 people left in the ranks. At dawn on January 14, 1641, 300 Dutchmen rushed into the breach, and another 350 began to climb the walls using ladders. By nine in the morning the city was already in the hands of the Dutch, and the besieged, led by the commandant of Malacca di Souza, locked themselves in the central fort. They held out for almost five hours, but the situation was hopeless and the Portuguese had to surrender, albeit on honorable terms. Di Souza met the commander of the besiegers, Captain Minne Karteka, at the gates of the fort, gave the Dutchman his sword, which he immediately received back, according to the ritual of honorable surrender. After this, the Portuguese took off the heavy gold chain of the city commandant and put it around the neck of the Dutch captain...

Japanese screen door. Namban era, early 17th century. Porters unload a Portuguese ship
Portugal tried twice more to rebuild its colonial empire. As the country lost possessions in the East, the role of Brazil discovered by Cabral increased. Interestingly, it went to Portugal six years before it was discovered, which is why many historians doubt that the navigator deviated so far west from the course by accident. Back in 1494 (two years after Columbus discovered America), Spain and Portugal, in order to avoid an inevitable war for spheres of influence, concluded a treaty in Tordesillas. According to it, the border between the countries was established along a meridian passing 370 leagues (2035 km) west of the Cape Verde Islands. Everything to the east went to Portugal, everything to the west went to Spain. Initially, the conversation was about a hundred leagues (550 km), but the Spaniards, who in any case received all the lands discovered by that time in the New World, did not particularly object when Juan II demanded that the border be moved further to the west - they were sure that the competitor was nothing , except for the barren ocean, will not acquire in this way. However, the border cut off a huge piece of land, and many indicate that the Portuguese at the time of the conclusion of the treaty already knew about the existence of the continent South America.

Brazil was of greatest value to the metropolis in the 18th century, when gold and diamonds began to be mined there. The king and government, who fled there from Napoleon, even equalized the status of the colony with the metropolis. But in 1822, Brazil declared independence.

In the second half of the 19th century, the Portuguese government decided to create a “new Brazil in Africa.” It was decided to connect the coastal possessions there (both in the east and in the west of the continent), which served mainly as strongholds through which trade was carried out, so as to form a continuous strip of Portuguese possessions from Angola to Mozambique. The main hero of this African colonial expansion was the Portuguese army infantry officer Alexandri de Serpa Pinto. He made several expeditions deep into the African continent, mapping out the route for laying a railway connecting the east and west coasts north of the British Cape Colony. But if Germany and France had nothing against the Portuguese plans, then England resolutely opposed them: the strip claimed by Lisbon cut the chain of colonies built by the British from Egypt to South Africa.

On January 11, 1890, England presented an ultimatum to Portugal, which was forced to accept because news arrived that the British navy, having left Zanzibar, was moving towards Mozambique. This capitulation caused an explosion of indignation in the country. The Cortes refused to ratify the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty. They began collecting donations to buy a cruiser that could protect Mozambique, and signing up volunteers for the African Expeditionary Force. Things almost came to war with England. But still, the pragmatists prevailed, and on June 11, 1891, Lisbon and London signed an agreement under which Portugal abandoned its colonial ambitions.

Angola and Mozambique remained Portuguese possessions until 1975, that is, they received freedom much later than the colonies of other countries. Salazar’s authoritarian regime in every possible way fueled great-power sentiments among the people, and therefore letting go of the colonies meant death for him: why do you need a firm hand if it cannot preserve the empire? Colonial troops fought a long and grueling war in Africa with rebels, which completely bled the mother country dry. The “carnation revolution” that broke out in it led to the fall of Salazar and the end of the senseless massacre in the colonies.

In the second half of the 20th century, the last possessions in Asia were also lost. In 1961, Indian troops entered Goa, Daman and Diu. East Timor was occupied by Indonesia in 1975. Portugal was the last to lose Macau in 1999. What remains of the first colonial empire in history? The nostalgic melancholy (saudadi) that permeates fado folk songs, the unique architecture of Manueline (a style that combines Gothic with maritime and oriental motifs, born in the golden era of Manuel I), the great epic “The Lusiads” by Camões. In the countries of the East, its traces can be found in art, colonial architecture, and many Portuguese words have entered local languages. This past is in the blood of the local residents - descendants of Portuguese settlers, in Christianity, which is professed by many here, in the widespread use of the Portuguese language - one of the most widespread in the world.

Portuguese navigators were the first to go in search of countries rich in gold and sea routes to India. Genoese sailors and merchants actively participated in their expeditions, striving to overtake their Venetian rivals in eastern trade. Already in 1415 the Portuguese took possession of Ceuta, which became; an important trading post and military outpost on the African continent. Then began the search for gold-bearing rivers, which were described in the writings of Arab geographers. The Portuguese Prince Enrique the Navigator provided great assistance in organizing these expeditions. Trading companies created under his patronage enjoyed a monopoly on colonial trade in African countries, in particular the predatory trade in black slaves. The lion's share of the profits went to the prince himself, to whom the pope granted the monopoly right to import black slaves into Europe.

By 1460, the Portuguese had discovered the Cape Verde Islands and entered the waters of the Gulf of Guinea. By that time they had already occupied the Azores. Now the task was to go around the African continent and thus reach the coast of India. In 1486-1487 An expedition was organized under the leadership of Bartolomeo Dias, which reached the southern tip of Africa. The Cape of Good Hope was discovered - the most southern point African continent. Now there is a real opportunity to open a sea route to India.

After Magellan's expedition in 1529, a new agreement was concluded in Saragossa and a second demarcation line was drawn - 17° east of the Moluccas. It goes without saying that these agreements were binding only on the two signatory states.

Other Western European countries, which later embarked on the path of colonial conquest, did not take them into account, pushing both Portugal and Spain out of their spheres of domination.

Columbus's discoveries forced the Portuguese to hasten to explore the last section of the route to India. Back in 1487, a secret agent, Cavellan, was sent, who visited Cairo, Hormuz, Calicut and the Mozambican harbor of Sofala, collecting the necessary data on the sea route from Southeast Africa to India. In the summer of 1497, a flotilla consisting of four ships led by Vasco da Gama set off from Lisbon. She followed the already known route to the Cape of Good Hope. However, to avoid oncoming currents, Vasco da Gama turned southwest from the Cape Verde Islands and passed the coast of Brazil. Having rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the expedition headed northeast and at the beginning of April 1498 entered Malindi harbor. Here Vasco da Gama recruited Ahmed ibn Majid, an experienced Arab sailor, to serve as a pilot. With his help, the expedition reached the Indian city of Calicut on May 20, 1498 without much difficulty. The journey to India took more than 10 months.

The Portuguese were coldly received by the local rajah. But still, Vasco da Gama managed to conclude an agreement and purchase a small batch of spices. On June 10, 1499, two ships, with less than half of the crew left on board the expedition, returned to Lisbon.

Vasco da Gama's expedition marked the beginning of Portugal's colonial conquest on the west coast of India. Here they had to deal with the peoples of an ancient high culture, who were at the stage of developed feudalism, perfectly familiar with firearms. It was impossible to conquer India, Indo-China, Indonesia, China and other countries that were part of the zone that Portugal “got” under the division with Spain. But the Portuguese were able to take advantage of one important advantage: they had a stronger fleet than the small feudal lords in India, Indonesia, and Indo-China. By using pirate methods to capture, rob, and exterminate the crews of the ships of Muslim merchants who controlled the maritime trade of India before the arrival of the Europeans, the Portuguese become masters South Seas and the Indian Ocean. Having achieved dominance here, they completely seize control of sea communications in the Indian Ocean and around Africa.

The Portuguese ensured their dominance in the South Seas with a network of fortified naval bases at the most important strategic points. In 1510, Goa in India was captured, becoming the center of the Portuguese colonial empire in the East, the seat of the viceroy. Then Diu, Daman and Bombay (India), Hormuz (Persian Gulf), Malacca (Malay Peninsula), Macau (China), the Chinese island of Taiwan, the Moluccas and a number of other points were captured. Relying on this network of fortresses, the Portuguese forced small feudal lords to give them all the production of precious spices in the form of tribute or at minimal prices.

The Portuguese captured enormous wealth in the East, both through piracy on the seas and by robbing the cities and feudal rulers of South Asia. Finally, they received enormous profits from trade with Asian and African countries. They usually made 400 percent or more of their profits from exporting spices from Asian countries. Lisbon and Goa became the largest slave markets. The Indians said about the Portuguese conquerors: “It’s fortunate that the Portuguese are as few as tigers and lions, otherwise they would exterminate the entire human race.”

The Portuguese in India did not have enough strength for a complete military takeover of the country, as the Spaniards did in America, but they systematically carried out colonial plunder in the form of monopoly appropriation and export of the most valuable products of eastern countries. Where possible, the Portuguese acted in exactly the same way as the Spaniards. In Brazil, the Portuguese introduced the same system of exploitation as the Spanish. The enormous revenues from the Portuguese colonial empire in India and Brazil went primarily to the treasury, since all the most profitable trade items were declared a royal monopoly. The feudal nobility and nobility enriched themselves as representatives of royal power in the colonies; Finally, the Catholic Church, which forcibly converted the population of Brazil and Portuguese strongholds in India, also drew significant lessons from the Portuguese colonial empire.

However, the significance of the formation of the first overseas colonial empires by Spain and Portugal came down not only to the enrichment of these countries. The formation of these empires ushered in the era of European colonial conquest and created some important conditions for the formation of the world market. In Europe itself, it contributed to the strengthening of the process of so-called primitive accumulation, led to a “price revolution,” and was a powerful impetus for the further development of capitalist relations in countries such as Holland, England, and France.

The main feature of the Portuguese colonial system, the exploitation of the colonies directly by the royal power with the help of the feudal-bureaucratic state apparatus, was common to all Portuguese possessions. The highest management of the colonial possessions was carried out by two government institutions of the metropolis - the financial council and the council for Indian affairs.

Local administration of the colonies was built on the connection of each individual province directly with the metropolis in the absence of mutual connections between the colonies; on the unlimited power of officials who headed the provinces as representatives of the crown, and their personal responsibility to the king, subject to a short-term - usually three-year - stay in senior positions. These top positions were obtained through bribes and at times officially went up for sale.

Governance in cities was modeled on feudal Portuguese cities, which had self-government rights and privileges based on granted charters.

The royal bureaucracy in the colonies performed not only administrative and judicial functions, but also trade. In the East trade has been the object of a royal monopoly from the very beginning. All the main export items - pepper, cloves, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, silk, varnishes - were monopolized by the crown. Officials purchased or collected goods for the metropolis as tribute, sold sent goods or gold, and monitored compliance with treaties and monopolies. Surpluses beyond what could be loaded onto ships were destroyed. All maritime transport from Portugal to the East and back was carried out exclusively on ships of the Royal Navy. Few goods were sent from Portugal. Payment for Indian goods was mainly money (minted in Goa) or gold from Sofala (Mozambique), exchanged for Indian fabrics.

Trade between individual colonial ports was a monopoly granted as a privilege to senior officials. Ships of the local population without special permits were prohibited from sailing in waters dominated by the Portuguese.

Formally, a different trade regime existed in Brazil and the Atlantic islands. Until the middle of the 17th century. navigation between them and Portugal was free for all Portuguese ships (all colonies were closed to foreigners in 1591). The royal monopoly was only the trade in dyeing plants. But the arbitrariness of officials who conducted their own trade actually represented a regime of trade monopolies.

The colonial policy of the Portuguese is characterized by the desire to create their own support from the local population, mainly by converting them to Catholicism.

Settled in a small coastal area - in fortresses, port cities, trading posts, the Portuguese created military strongholds for trade domination in a country that remained under the control of its former feudal rulers. But local feudal lords had every reason to hate the Portuguese, who forced them to enter into agreements of “friendship” and the delivery of all products at fixed prices or free of charge, in the form of tribute. Any competitor to Portugal strong enough to shake its monopoly position on the sea was a welcome ally for the local rulers. This was the weakness of the Portuguese colonial empire in India.

Portuguese colonies.

The colonial system that developed in the Portuguese possessions was distinguished by significant originality. In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared this territory the possession of the Portuguese king. In Brazil, with the exception of certain areas on the coast, there was no settled agricultural population; the few Indian tribes, who were at the stage of a tribal system, were pushed into the interior of the country. The lack of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the uniqueness of the colonization of Brazil. The second important factor was the significant development of trading capital. Organized colonization of Brazil began in 1530, and it took the form of economic development of coastal areas. An attempt was made to impose feudal forms of land tenure. The coast was divided into 13 captains, the owners of which had full power. However, Portugal did not have a significant surplus population, so settlement of the colony proceeded slowly. The absence of peasant migrants and the small number of indigenous people made the development of feudal forms of economy impossible. The areas where the plantation system, based on the exploitation of black slaves from Africa, developed most successfully. Starting from the second half of the 16th century. The importation of African slaves is growing rapidly. In 1583, there were 25 thousand white settlers and millions of slaves throughout the colony. White settlers lived mainly in the coastal zone in rather closed groups. Here, miscegenation did not take off on a large scale; the influence of Portuguese culture on the local population was very limited. The Portuguese language did not become dominant; a unique language of communication between Indians and Portuguese arose - “lengua geral”, which was based on one of the local dialects and the basic grammatical and lexical forms of the Portuguese language. Lengua Geral was spoken by the entire population of Brazil over the next two centuries.

Colonization and the Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church played a major role in the colonization of America, which, both in the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, became the most important link in the colonial apparatus and the exploiter of the indigenous population. The discovery and conquest of America was considered by the papacy as a new crusade, the goal of which was to Christianize the indigenous population. In this regard, the Spanish kings received the right to manage the affairs of the church in the colony, direct missionary activities, and found churches and monasteries. The church quickly became the largest land owner. The conquistadors were well aware that Christianization would play a big role in consolidating their dominance over the indigenous population. In the first quarter of the 16th century. Representatives of various monastic orders began to arrive in America: Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and later the Jesuits, who gained great influence in La Plata and Brazil. Groups of monks followed the conquistador troops, creating their own mission villages; the centers of the missions were churches and houses that served as dwellings for the monks. Subsequently, schools for Indian children were created in the missions, and at the same time a small fortified fortress was built to house a Spanish garrison. Thus, the missions were both outposts of Christianization and border points of the Spanish possessions.

In the first decades of the Conquest, Catholic priests, carrying out Christianization, sought to destroy not only local religious beliefs, but also to eradicate the culture of the indigenous population. An example is the Franciscan Bishop Diego de Landa, who ordered the destruction of all the ancient books of the Mayan people, cultural monuments, and the very historical memory of the people. However, Catholic priests soon began to act in other ways. Carrying out Christianization, spreading Spanish culture and the Spanish language, they began to use elements of the local ancient religion and culture of the conquered Indian peoples. Despite the cruelty and destruction of the conquest, the Indian culture did not die; it survived and changed under the influence of Spanish culture. A new culture gradually emerged based on the synthesis of Spanish and Indian elements.

Catholic missionaries were forced to promote this synthesis. They often erected Christian churches on the site of former Indian shrines, and used some images and symbols of the former beliefs of the indigenous population, including them in Catholic rites and religious symbols. Thus, not far from the city of Mexico, on the site of a destroyed Indian temple, the Church of the Virgin Mary of Guadalupe was built, which became a place of pilgrimage for Indians. The Church claimed that a miraculous appearance of the Mother of God took place at this place. Many icons and special rituals were dedicated to this event. On these icons, the Virgin Mary was depicted with the face of an Indian woman - a “dark Madonna,” and in her cult itself echoes of former Indian beliefs were felt.

Opening of the sea route to India, colonial conquests of the Portuguese.

The tragic fate of Columbus is largely explained by the successes of the Portuguese. In 1497, Vasco da Gama's expedition was sent to explore the sea route to India around Africa. Having rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese sailors entered the Indian Ocean and discovered the mouth of the Zambezi River. Moving north along the coast of Africa, Vasco da Gama reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique - Mombasa and Malindi. In May 1498, with the help of an Arab pilot, the squadron reached the Indian port of Calicut. The entire voyage to India lasted 10 months. Having purchased a large cargo of spices for sale in Europe, the expedition set off on the return journey; it took a whole year, during the journey 2/3 of the crew died.

The success of Vasco da Gama's expedition made a huge impression in Europe. Despite heavy losses, the goal was achieved; enormous opportunities opened up for the Portuguese for the commercial exploitation of India. Soon, thanks to their superiority in weapons and naval technology, they managed to oust Arab merchants from the Indian Ocean and take control of all maritime trade. The Portuguese became incomparably more cruel than the Arabs, exploiters of the population of the coastal regions of India, and then Malacca and Indonesia. The Portuguese demanded that the Indian princes cease all trade relations with the Arabs and expel Arab population from their territory. They attacked all ships, both Arab and local, robbed them, and brutally exterminated their crews. Albuquerque, who was first the commander of the squadron and then became the Viceroy of India, was particularly ferocious. He believed that the Portuguese should strengthen themselves along the entire coast of the Indian Ocean and close all exits to the ocean to Arab merchants. The Albuquerque squadron destroyed defenseless cities on the southern coast of Arabia, causing horror with its atrocities. Arab attempts to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean failed. In 1509, their fleet at Diu (northern coast of India) was defeated.

In India itself, the Portuguese did not capture vast territories, but sought to capture only strongholds on the coast. They made extensive use of the rivalry of local rajahs. The colonialists entered into alliances with some of them, built fortresses on their territory and stationed their garrisons there. Gradually, the Portuguese took control of all trade relations between individual regions of the Indian Ocean coast. This trade brought huge profits. Moving further east from the coast, they took possession of the transit routes for the spice trade, which were brought here from the Sunda and Moluccas archipelagos. In 1511, Malacca was captured by the Portuguese, and in 1521 their trading posts arose on the Moluccas. Trade with India was declared a monopoly of the Portuguese king. Merchants who brought spices to Lisbon received up to 800% profit. The government artificially kept prices high. Every year, only 5-6 ships of spices were allowed to be exported from the vast colonial possessions. If the imported goods turned out to be more than needed to maintain high prices, they were destroyed.

Having seized control of trade with India, the Portuguese persistently sought a western route to this richest country. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. As part of the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, the Florentine navigator and astronomer Amerigo Vespucci traveled to the shores of America. During the second voyage, the Portuguese squadron passed along the coast of Brazil, considering it an island. In 1501, Vespucci took part in an expedition that explored the coast of Brazil and came to the conclusion that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new continent, which was named America in honor of Amerigo. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared in Germany, and then atlases and maps.