The militarized nature of the Roman slave state over the course of several centuries transformed the small city-state of Rome into a powerful world power, under whose authority was the territory of modern Europe, Asia Minor, and Egypt. Wars of conquest, sharp class differentiation, wealth and luxury at one pole, poverty and lawlessness at the other give Roman society an appearance in which the features of similarity with ancient Greece are lost. The whole history, all its stages were reflected in the development of Roman clothing. Roman culture was formed and developed under the influence of various cultures, but above all, ancient Greek. The natural and climatic conditions of Ancient Rome were much harsher than in the Balkans; the lack of fertile land and difficult living conditions shaped the Romans as stern, courageous and practical people. Therefore, the Roman ideal of beauty differed from the ancient Greek one. Further aggressive policies and endless wars shaped the development of such an ideal: men should be strong, hardy, tough, women should be majestic, have a smooth gait, have round shoulders, wide hips and small breasts. The main feature of the aesthetic ideal of the Romans is rigor and simplicity in everything.
Fabrics, ornaments, colors
The most common material from which clothing was made throughout the history of Ancient Rome was wool. The Romans have long been able to produce different types of woolen fabrics, in particular very thin and soft, as well as dense, fleecy ones. Along with wool, linen fabrics were also used, mainly for underwear, which was worn directly on the body.
Already in the 1st century AD. Silk was also known in Rome. The use of silk fabrics spread more and more, and already in the late period of the empire, silk clothing became quite common in the everyday life of the wealthy, especially in the east. At first it was light, thin silk and semi-silk fabrics, including translucent ones (for noble fashionistas), and then increasingly dense, heavy fabrics prevailed.
The main color of ancient Roman clothing in the early period was white, which showed the privilege of full Roman citizens. The white color partially retained its meaning later as the color of ceremonial clothing, especially when performing sacrifices and other religious ceremonies and rituals. Slaves and partial citizens did not have the right to wear white clothes. The colors of their outfit were dark: brown, yellow-brown and gray tones predominated. Starting from Art. II BC, along with white, clothes of other colors were widely worn.
The colors of women's costumes were especially varied, while men's costumes had only red, purple and brown tones. Clothing dyed in the highest grades of purple, since the time of Domitien Flavius (81-96 AD) and especially Theodosius II, even courtiers were strictly forbidden to wear - purple became the exclusively imperial color.
The main Roman elements of ornamentation are acanthus, oak, laurel leaves, climbing shoots, ears of corn, fruits, flowers, figurines of people and animals, masks, skulls, sphinxes, griffins, etc. Along with them, vases, military trophies, fluttering ribbons, etc. d. They often have a real shape. Ornamentation also carried certain symbols and allegory: the oak was considered a symbol of the highest heavenly deity, the eagle - a symbol of Jupiter, etc. The Greeks valued art out of love for beauty, the Romans - out of love for luxury. Eastern influences gradually intensified in late Roman ornament. It outlines the features of the future style of Byzantine culture, which became the successor to antiquity.
Men's suit
The tunic and toga - the basis of the ancient Roman men's costume - in their artistic and constructive design differed from the Greek chiton and himation, although they had common features.
Shirt-like tunic served as everyday home clothing for the ancient Romans. She was no longer a simple piece of cloth into which the body was draped. Sewn from two panels, the tunic covered both shoulders, was worn over the head and at first had only side armholes. Then she had short, elbow-length sleeves that were not sewn in, but formed by folds of fabric; they have long been considered a sign of panache and effeminacy. The tunic apparently came from a loincloth and at first consisted of two pieces of fabric fastened on the left shoulder with a fibula (from the Latin fibula, a staple - a metal fastener for clothing, which also serves as decoration.). And later, having already become cut and sewn clothing, the tunic was perceived as folk clothing, decent for the poor.
The tunic did not have a collar - all antique clothing was devoid of collars. The tunic, long to the knees, was belted. The senator wore a tunic with a wide purple stripe ("clavi"
). This tunic was called "tunica laticlavia"
. Plebeian horsemen and tribunes could only afford narrow purple stripes on their tunics - "angusticlavia"
. The soldier's tunic was required to be shorter than the civilian one.
The Romans had an expression "populas tunicatus", that is, “wearing a tunic” (without a toga), otherwise “common people”, “shirt makers” ( "tunicati"). The common people's tunic was short and dark ( "tunica pulla"). At one time, the Roman Senate discussed a proposal to introduce identical tunics for all slaves, which, as it seemed to legislators, would make it easier to capture fugitives. But prudence prevailed: the senators reasoned sensibly - such clothing would only strengthen the sense of solidarity and unity among the slaves, and meanwhile the threat of uprising became more and more real.
They wore one or two tunics, but under Augustus it became fashionable to wear three or more tunics - for example, Augustus wore four. The tunic was belted below the chest; when several of them were put on, only the lower, sleeveless one was belted.
The richer and more noble the owner of the tunic, the more skillfully it was decorated. Decorative decorations (stripes, embroidery, ornament) also had a class-official character. They were predominantly dark cherry, purple, and blue; the color had a certain symbolism. Thus, purple vertical stripes along the front of the tunic, varying in number and width, were worn by Roman senators and horsemen. The victorious commander's tunic was purple, embroidered with a pattern in the form of golden palm branches. A special tunic was worn by the triumphant: it was embroidered with golden palm branches, kept in the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, listed as part of the temple inventory and issued only on the day of the triumph. Here is an example of the names of some tunics: Rekta tunic
(straight, narrow); pretext tunic
(with one purple stripe, worn by high magistrates, for example, senators (the so-called tunic laticlavia
) or Roman boys under 16 years old); palmata tunic
(decorated with embroidered palm leaves, the hallmark of a triumphant); tunic angustiklavia
(with one or two narrow purple stripes along the body, worn by horsemen); paragauda tunic
(with sewn brocade stripes), etc.
The ancient Romans called themselves "gens togata"- “people in togas.” Toga- clothing of Etruscan origin, literally translated means “covering.” The toga was a sign of belonging to Roman society, a sign of Roman citizenship. Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro (lat. Publius Vergilius Maro; October 15, 70 BC, Andes near Mantua - September 21, 19 BC, Brundisium) - national poet of Ancient Rome, author of the Aeneid, nicknamed "Mantuan swan") called the Romans "Lords of the world, a people dressed in togas." A citizen sent into exile lost the right to wear a toga, and foreigners were not granted this privilege at all. At first, in ancient times, both men and women wore togas. Later it became only men's clothing. The toga was an official, ceremonial vestment, obligatory to be worn in certain situations.
But the toga was not only an expression of Roman identity. It also meant a peaceful life (the Romans said: “cedant arma togae” - “the weapon will give way to the toga”); socio-political activity, political eloquence (“toga enitescere” - “one who has achieved the toga, who has shown eloquence”); civil power, the Senate (“dercreto togae” - “law of the toga”).
A young man at the age of sixteen put on a man's toga ( "toga virieis" ). Children of full-fledged Romans and high dignitaries wore a toga with a purple border ( "toga praetexta" ), the applicant for the highest position received the right to a snow-white toga ( "toga candida" , where the word “candidate” comes from), in theory it could be a person with an unblemished reputation. Consular toga ( "toga palmeta" ) decorated with a palm pattern; the triumphant clothed himself in an embroidered toga ( "toga picta" ) scenes from Roman history were embroidered on it in gold. The imperial toga was supposed to be purple ( "toga purpurea" ). Casual Toga ( "Toga pura" ) was made of heavy white wool, without colored ornaments. On the occasion of mourning, a gray toga was worn ( "toga pulla" ). The accused was wearing a gray toga. The unjustly accused showed off his soiled toga to arouse public sympathy.
It is assumed that the toga was worn in the following way. Taking it with both hands by the straight edge, they divided it into three parts and laid it on the left shoulder so that the first third hung forward - almost to the ankle. The next third of the fabric went along the back under the right arm - the fabric hung down, ending up on the floor (after all, this is the part of the toga that has the maximum width). It was this part of the toga that was draped and laid on the right side in deep folds. The remaining third of the fabric was transferred to the left shoulder. This part of the toga either remained hanging down the back, and its end was thrown over the left arm bent at the elbow. Either this last third once again passed along the back, then on the right under the arm (and here it was draped in accordance with the folds of the previous layer), finally came out to a piece of the first third and was tucked under it several times, forming the so-called umbo (a metal plaque of a hemispherical or conical shape, placed in the middle of the shield, protecting the warrior’s hand from blows piercing the shield. Under the umbo there is a handle by which the warrior holds the shield. It also acts as a decoration for the shield.) on the left side of the chest. Or, finally, this third part, lowered down to the ankles, was passed between the legs and rose to the left side of the chest to form a umbon there, as in the second case. It was classic, aristocratically strict to wear a toga without a tunic - so that the right shoulder and the right side of the chest were open.
The toga was expensive and formal clothing. It was worn when going to the circus and theater, to court or to a meeting of a triumphant. Under the toga they wore a tunic and a kind of apron, which to some extent replaced trousers, which were rejected as barbaric clothing.
At first the toga was small. But with the growth of the social pretensions of the ancient Romans, the size of the toga also grew: in the end, its length reached five and a half meters and its width three and a half meters. The toga required leisurely movements and majestic posture, otherwise this complex structure could simply fall apart. In imperial Rome, high position led to the maintenance of a staff of servants who were entrusted with the care of the clothes of a noble person. Among the emperor's servants were: one in charge of the emperor's triumphal white clothes, one in charge of his hunting clothes, and a theater tailor. As a rule, all these people were freedmen.
A little later, these bulky heavy togas are replaced by lightweight cloak, reminiscent of the Greek chlamys, which was fastened not on the shoulder, like the Greeks, but in the middle of the chest under the neck. They also wore a lazerna - a cloak similar to a chlamys, but made of more expensive fabrics, woven with gold and silver threads. The cloak was carefully selected to match the color of the tunic and was worn on the chest with a fibula, covering the shoulders. The lower classes wore short cloaks, which, by the way, were much more comfortable than the cloaks for high-ranking people. A little later, the aristocracy began to wear such cloaks. There were several types of cloaks: sagum - a soldier's cloak made of coarse wool and having a hood, lacerna - a medium-length cloak with a hood and fastened under the chin with a fibula and tightened with a belt, paludamentum - a military cloak made of thin white or purple fabric. This cloak had many folds, and it fastened on the right shoulder.
In late Rome, various versions of the penule began to be worn. Penula is a cloak with a circle or semicircle in its cut, where there was a hole for the head; the hood was sewn to it. Simple peasants wore penules made of coarse wool, while rich dandies wore a cloak made of expensive decorated fabrics. Penula was the traditional clothing of shepherds; it was worn by travelers; it was a bias-cut cape with a hole for the head, with or without a hood. They wore it without a belt.
Gradually, this clothing is being replaced by another, more subtle one, which allows one to hide the natural shapes and proportions of the figure. Such changes occurred due to the influence of East Asian traditions on Roman culture and the spread of Christian ideology in Rome.
Narrow long tunics and wide dalmatics began to appear, which hid the entire figure: from the neck to the feet. In those days, variegation in ornamentation became popular, and various decorations began to be appreciated and loved.
Woman suit
Drapery also formed the basis of women's costume. Its main parts were a tunic (in cut no different from a man's) and a table.
Tables(lat. stola) was a special form of women's tunic with short sleeves, wide and with many folds, reaching to the ankles, at the bottom of which a purple ribbon or frill was sewn (lat. instita). A belt was tied around the waist of the table. Such clothes were worn by matrons from high society and neither freedwomen, nor women of easy virtue, nor slaves dared to wear them. Seneca believed that the table should not be bright or colorful: “matrons should not wear fabrics of the colors that corrupt women wear.”
The tunic served as underwear, over which a corset (strophium/mamillare) made of thin leather and table was worn. The stola repeated the style of the tunic, only it was wider and longer, and at the bottom it was trimmed with a pleated frill. It was combined with a tunic through combinations of different textures and different densities of fabrics, sleeve lengths and decorative designs. The stola was girded with an overlap, variations of which created the required proportions. The outerwear was a draped cloak - palla, which was sometimes replaced by penula.
Table in the 2nd century AD. e. changed palla, and the toga pallium (lat. pallium) was a simplified Greek himation - a piece of soft fabric that is thrown over the shoulder and wrapped around the waist. This raincoat became popular due to its ease of wearing. The favorite color was purple, but the palla was also yellow, white, black, and decorated with gold.
The head was covered with a veil or the edge of a palla. The main types of decoration and decoration were embroidery and fringe. In the 3rd-4th centuries, when the idea of the beauty of the female figure changed, developed forms and emphasized proportions, revealed by draped clothing, were replaced by flat static forms. Light and thin Greek and Assyrian silks were replaced by heavy oriental fabrics with large patterns. Such fabrics held their shape, not allowing, in accordance with Christian ideas about the priority of the soul, to demonstrate the beauty of the figure, its plasticity. The color scheme of the women's costume was dominated by combinations of brown tones with golden yellow, purple with green, blue with gray. Shoes were soft shoes made of colored leather, trimmed with embroidery or metal plaques.
Shoes were divided into sandals (lat. soleae, sandalia ), boots (lat. calcei ) and boots (lat. caligae ). Men wore, for the most part, shoes made of natural leather; women's shoes differed little in shape, but were of a variety of colors and made of softer leather. Rich women wore shoes decorated with pearls, gold and precious stones. Strong caligas, according to modern experiments, could last for marches of 500-1000 km; putting on such boots took about 3-4 minutes. There were shoes for senators, consuls, and soldiers. All classes could wear sandals, but only free citizens had the right to wear high Calcei boots . Aristocrats wore such boots with silver buckles and black belts, ordinary Romans wore black ones without decorations. The emperor's calcei were purple. The expression “putting on the purple shoes” meant taking the throne. Soldiers and travelers wore shoes kaliga - high boots made of rough leather with open toes, thick soles and lined with nails. Emperor Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus received the nickname "Caligula" because he spent much of his childhood in army camps and wore legionary clothing, including boots made to his size. The peasants wore kurbatins - shoes made from a piece of rawhide, fastened with straps. Wooden shoes were worn by slaves or the poor.
Hats
The main types of hats were borrowed by the Romans from the Greeks. Like the Greeks, the Romans rarely wore them. These were hats and caps made of felt, leather, straw, and plant fibers. The priests completely covered their heads. Quite often, women threw the edge of a palla over their heads, just as men covered their heads with the edge of a toga. The heads of the winners were decorated with wreaths made of oak, laurel, myrtle, ivy, violets and artificial flowers, as well as gold. Warriors wore helmets made of leather or metal. If Sulpicius Gall rejected his wife because she appeared in a public place without a headdress, then during the empire the traditions became less strict. Many women considered it sufficient to wear as a headdress - vitta - a woolen bandage that held their hair together (as a right and a sign of matrons).
Jewelry and accessories
Jewelry meant more to the Romans than to the Greeks, as it was meant to make the costume of the “ruler of the world” representative. Men's jewelry included thick gold necklaces, gold wreaths, rings, bracelets, and brooches. Women's jewelry included neck chains and necklaces of various shapes, rings and bracelets, which were usually given the Greek shape of a coiled snake, head hoops and tiaras, also predominantly Greek in shape, buckles and clasps. The passion for jewelry reached its apogee during the Empire (rings were worn 5-6 pieces on each finger). Of the precious stones, colorless ones were especially highly valued, especially diamond and opal. Pearls were called unio (unity). They decorated hair, necks, and inserted them into earrings, rings, and bracelets. Fashionable jewelry trinkets also included amber and crystal balls, which were carried in hands.
Despite laws prohibiting luxury (lex Oppia in 193 BC) and moralists condemning women's addiction to luxury and wastefulness, Roman women of all levels of society willingly wore jewelry. Rich jewelry showed the status of a woman (and her husband) in society. Women used tiaras, rings (Latin anuli), gold ribbons woven into their hair (Latin vittae), earrings (Latin inaures) (sometimes several of them were put into each ear), bracelets (Latin armillae) as decorations. ; spintera - bracelets worn on the shoulder) and necklaces (lat. monilia) with or without pendants. The literature also mentions ankle bracelets (Latin priscelides) and hip chains. Brooches were used as fasteners for clothing and served as decoration at the same time.
The main materials for making jewelry were gold, silver and electrum; Often decorations were also made of bronze and glass. Precious stones were also used in jewelry: emeralds, blue sapphires, red garnets, opals, and very rarely diamonds (diamonds were not known in Ancient Rome, and uncut diamonds are not very beautiful). Greatly popular since
Emperor Augustus began to use pearls (lat. margaritae), which were imported in large quantities from the East; A pearl necklace was the cherished dream of every more or less wealthy woman. Women of modest means wore jewelry made of agate, amber, coral or jet, women from the lower class and slaves wore imitation precious stones (for example, emeralds) or jewelry made of cheap colored glass.
The only decoration for men during the Republican period was a signet ring (a sign of belonging to the equestrian class), which was most often worn on the ring finger of the left hand. During the Empire, men often wore several rings at a time, decorated with precious stones, to show their wealth; some wore large gold rings. Only a few men wore gold bracelets.
Clothing of Ancient Rome
If the history of Greek costume began with extraordinary Asian diversity, prim splendor and petty artificiality and ended with noble simplicity, picturesque breadth and a large pattern of folds, then the costume of the Romans changed in the opposite direction: from a simple, unpretentious form to pretentious excess and pomp.
In the early stages of the Roman state, the aesthetic ideal of the Romans was stern warriors and majestic women. The ancient Romans appear to us as physically strong, developed, hardy people. Not the Greek cult of a beautiful athletic body, harmony of proportions, but the severity and courage of a warrior, adaptability to any conditions, severity and simplicity - these are the main features of the ideal man of the early republican period.
The ideal Roman woman embodied majesty, slowness and a certain static character. A figure with rounded shoulders, wide hips and a flat chest was considered beautiful.
The poor agricultural population of Rome could hardly learn anything from the Etruscans, their closest neighbors in ancient times, who loved luxury and splendor; in any case, in the first centuries Roman costume developed independently. This is evidenced by the name “Roma togata” - “Rome wearing a toga” - which distinguished it from all neighboring tribes. Like Greece during the Persian Wars, the Romans developed their own type of national clothing, which by the 2nd century. BC. shaped like a majestic toga.
Men's and women's costumes began to separate already in the early period of the history of Ancient Rome, when Roman women wore ancient Greek clothing, and men continued to wear Roman togas and cloaks. This noticeable difference existed until the late empire, when almost the same type of closed attire was common among both sexes, and men's and women's costumes became similar.
The aristocratic nature of the republic, the privileged position of Roman citizens in relation to other residents of the vast territory of the Roman state, the developed bureaucratic apparatus headed by the emperor - all this created within the free population of Ancient Rome various social groups that tried to emphasize their isolation both in appearance and in clothing .
The white toga, for example, was the outerwear of only full-fledged Roman citizens. Slaves did not have the right to wear a toga at all; class differences were also observed in women's clothing. The class difference in costume in Ancient Rome was also manifested in the sharp difference in the quality and richness of the same type of clothing among representatives of the nobility of Roman society and among the entire other population.
The wretchedness of the clothes of the common people was in sharp contrast to the luxurious costumes of the nobility. According to contemporaries, the wife of Emperor Claudius (4І-54 AD) on one of her ceremonial appearances was decorated with jewelry worth an astronomical amount - 40 million sesterces.
And just as in Greece, the point was to protect national clothing from alien influence and from spreading luxury. An example is the law on clothing of the tribune Oppius (215 BC), directed against the luxury of Roman women’s outfits.
As a matter of fact, this danger was most threatened by Greece after it became dependent on Rome (146 BC) and the Romans had the opportunity to directly perceive a Greek culture higher than their own.
In addition, Greek clothing was more comfortable, lighter, and more elegant. At this time, the majestic, but uncomfortable, movement-restricting toga is preserved only as a civilian (ceremonial) costume, and clothing very close to Greek becomes everyday. Same role as in Greece chiton, in Rome begins to play tunic. It was most often worn as a house dress without any additions.
The difference between a tunic and a chiton was that the chiton consisted of one piece of fabric and was wound around the body, while the tunic (as a type of long blouse) was worn over the head. At first it was sleeveless, with slits for the arms (elbow-length sleeves appeared later), ending below the knees and belted at the hips. The tunic had a rectangular cut. There were purple stripes along the chest and back - one or two at a time (they could indicate, for example, the rank of senator). The main color was white, the material was wool.
Later, men began to wear a tunic that reached to their heels, and as material wealth increased, they even began to wear several tunics at once - one on top of the other.
Roman women wore the same clothes, but always wider and longer to the toes. At first, the tunic served them as a simple home dress, but with the growth of prosperity, it began to play a more modest role as a shirt (an undertunic made of thin linen), and its place was taken by another type of tunic - table(stola - lat. rich), with folds, a long train, with or without a belt, looking very impressive. It could be with sleeves (of greater or lesser length) or without them at all; the sleeves were open along their entire length and were fastened with fasteners (agrafs) in two or three places from the elbow to the shoulder. The edges of the table were almost always bordered with colored embroidery.
The Romans wore outerwear over the tunic: men - toga, women - pallu. The toga was at first a lighter form of cloak, but over time it became like a long and heavy himation. We do not know any images of its earlier, simpler form, but the later one, with a truly Roman arrangement of folds and an abundance of fabric, looks much more majestic than its prototype - the himation. It is a huge piece of fabric (about 3.5 m wide, over 5 m long), cut in the shape of an ellipse or half an ellipse, which is wrapped around the body in a much more complex way than a himation.
Oddly enough, there is still no complete clarity in ideas about the shape and cut of the toga. Only the following is known. Before wrapping the toga around the body, the two segments that made it up were folded in such a way as to obtain two unequal ovals (half-ovals), then a longitudinal fold was carefully formed and left overnight in wooden clamps. After this, one end, often with a lead tassel-weight, was lowered, rounded outward, over the left shoulder forward so that it dragged along the floor. The rest of the folded fabric was pulled over the back, covering the body from behind from shoulders to heels, the other end was passed forward under the right armpit, directed diagonally across the chest to the left shoulder and thrown over the shoulder and arm back; hands remained free.
The difference between a toga and a himation was that both parts of the toga, separated by a fold, were applied to the body at the same time; the large one covered the lower part of the body; the smaller upper one, going to the shoulder, formed a kind of overlay - umbo(letters, protrusion on the shield, later - fold of clothing, drapery). Above this overlay they made an overlap on the chest like a pocket - the so-called sinus(sinus - Latin arc, overlap, sinus), for this purpose, pulling up the front end of the toga, which was dragging along the floor, and opening the feet. Then the umbo was pulled over the right shoulder, covering it along with the arm.
It goes without saying that the toga, with its grandeur and extreme complexity of styling, could not serve as everyday clothing. Already in the 2nd century. BC. it was preserved only as festive and civil clothing: among noble Romans - from pure white wool, among young men - with one purple stripe along the edge (toga praetexta - bordered, framed), among emperors of a later time - entirely purple.
To replace it as an absolutely necessary outerwear, the Romans used penulu(paenula) - a warm cloak made of thick castor, closed on all sides, with a cutout for the head in the middle, covering the body from the shoulders, often with a hood. Later, this cloak began to be fastened on the right shoulder, like a Greek chlamys. Similar, but shorter cloak - sagum(sagum) worn by soldiers. In origin it was a Gallic riding cloak.
Just as men wore a toga outside the home, Roman women wore a pallu - a long cloak, sometimes reaching to the ankle and usually consisting of one piece of material larger than human height. During sacrifices, it was used to cover the head or wrap it around the body below the shoulders. The palla either went down freely or was pressed to the body with a belt. The palla was folded in half lengthwise. One half of it covered the chest, the other - the back; on the shoulders, by means of fasteners, both these halves were connected.
The palla was put on different ways: it could cover both shoulders, like a himation, or be fastened with a clasp on one or both shoulders, or thrown over the head and enveloping the entire figure. The material was rather fine wool - purple in different shades, the color of heliotrope, mallow (pale lilac) or yellow.
Sometimes women wore an outer dress over their tunic - a table similar to a tunic, but longer and wider, with more folds. If the lower tunic had sleeves, then the table was sleeveless and was tied with a belt just under the chest, forming an overlap. The bottom of the table was necessarily trimmed with a pleated frill, sometimes representing something like a train. It was considered indecent to appear without a table or palla in a public place.
Bulky togas and pallas did not allow fast movement. In general, slowness in gait, impeccable drapery, and some theatricality in movements were considered the height of grace.
The main color of ancient Roman clothing in the early period was white, which showed the privilege of full Roman citizens. The white color partially retained its meaning later as the color of ceremonial clothing, especially when performing sacrifices and other religious ceremonies and rituals. Slaves and partial citizens did not have the right to wear white clothes. The colors of their outfit were dark: brown, yellow-brown and gray tones predominated. Starting from Art. II BC, along with white, clothes of other colors were widely worn. The colors of women's costumes were especially varied, while men's costumes had only red, purple and brown tones. Clothes dyed in the highest grades of purple, from the time of Domitien Flavius (81-96 AD) and especially Theodosius II, were strictly forbidden to be worn even by courtiers - purple became an exclusively imperial color.
During the period of the Republic and the early Roman Empire, clothing predominated from smooth, single-color fabrics without patterns, decorated only with border stripes of predominantly dark cherry, purple and blue. Later, multi-colored stripes and stripes of various shapes appeared in many details of the costumes (on the collar, sleeves, chest, on the shoulders, below the knees). The size of these stripes is 15-20 cm. Patterned fabrics became widespread only in the costumes of the late Roman Empire, that is, starting from the 3rd century. AD Until then, they were used only on special occasions, namely for the clothing of triumphants and emperors. Late Roman patterned fabrics had a large continuous pattern of geometric shapes (circles, squares, diamonds) with plant motifs inscribed in them (rosettes, quatrefoils, ivy weaves), but very stylized, much more conventional than in the ancient Greek ornament. The patterns on the fabrics were woven or embroidered in two or three colors in such a way that they created the colorful multicoloredness of antique clothing, and at the same time they burdened the fabric and made it excessively lush. This splendor was further enhanced by the gold decoration.
Ornamental stripes on clothing with pattern motifs at first were not much different from the ancient Greek ones, but later they became more complex and more stylized. Lush leaves of acanite, oak and laurel, garlands of flowers, flowers and fruits, and complex plant curls appeared. Later, these still completely antique, realistic ornamental borders changed to stripes completely filled with geometric patterns.
The most common material from which clothing was made throughout the history of Ancient Rome was wool. The Romans have long been able to produce different types of woolen fabrics, in particular very thin and soft, and also dense, fleecy. Along with wool, linen fabrics were also used, mainly for underwear, which was worn directly on the body. Already in the 1st century AD. Silk was also known in Rome. The use of silk fabrics spread more and more, and already in the late period of the empire, silk clothing became quite common in the everyday life of the wealthy, especially in the east. At first it was light, thin silk and semi-silk fabrics, including translucent ones (for noble fashionistas), and then increasingly dense, heavy fabrics prevailed.
The Roman women also had a special thin veil, sometimes completely transparent. In addition to fine wool, transparent sea-green silk was used for clothing - Kos (named after the island of Kos in the Aegean Sea), which was delivered to Italy through Greece. Wall paintings at Pompeii show a wide variety of colors and patterns of Roman clothing.
The venerable matron gradually turned into an elegant, richly decorated lady. The rest of the toilet items were brought into line with this. Some intimate accessories of the women's toilet were of no small importance for the perception of body shapes and the corresponding stylization of clothing. For both Greek and Roman women, these included the mamillare, a soft leather bandage worn over the naked body and supporting the chest from below, and the strophium, a breast bandage worn over the lower tunic.
Roman men took little care of their hair, and they never had such luxuriously curled curls as the Greeks. In the early period they wore a full beard of moderate length; from the 3rd century BC. It became a custom to shave the beard in numerous Greek barbers. Only under Emperor Hadrian did short, thick beards appear again.
The hairstyle of Roman women was initially quite modest, but during the empire more and more magnificent and complex structures appeared, the creation of which required the help of several slaves.
Combs and brushes, hairpins, curling irons, all kinds of mirrors, cosmetics, hair dyes, etc. are widely used. During the wars with the Germans, golden hair like Germanic women was in fashion, and Roman women either wore wigs or dyed or bleached their own hair.
There were many varieties of Roman women's hairstyles - from a simple, so-called “Greek knot” with a straight parting to a tiara with hair raised high above the forehead. In addition, the hairstyle was richly decorated with hairpins (sometimes with figures), tiaras, pearls and stones. Earrings, necklaces, brooches, bracelets, rings, and belts were also used for decoration. The Romans significantly improved footwear compared to the Greek ones.
Pants were originally unknown to the Romans. But the legionnaires, who served in the “barbarian” lands in the north and west, brought from there, in addition to the above-mentioned Gallic cloak (sagum) with a hood (cucullus), also trousers (braccae), this “most un-Roman clothing”, which appeared in Europe in the ancient period of the existence of the Indo-Europeans, but only many centuries later was it able to step over the Alps.
Before this, the Romans wore windings. From the Germans they also borrowed wide trousers that reached the ankles. On monuments from the imperial era, Roman legionnaires are always depicted wearing stockings that reach to their calves; over them are worn shoes woven from straps, which cover the heel and sole (except for the toes) and end slightly above the ankle.
Rome. Warriors and gladiators of the imperial era
1. Heavily armed legionnaire from the VIII Legion of Augustus. Leather cuirass, leather trousers, a belt with metal overlays, a rectangular shield (scutum), a sword on a belt (balteus), a throwing spear (pilum) and a metal helmet (cassis) with a vertical decoration - a sultan (crista).
2. Legionnaire (similar to those depicted on Trajan's Column). Leather cuirass with an iron stripe (lorica segmentata).
3. Vexillary, or signifer, is a standard bearer with a bear or lion skin. Armor with rings, a leather vest, a sword, a dagger and a round shield (clipeus) made of leather with metal trim.
4. Aquilifer - standard bearer with the sign of the legion - an eagle (there were 4200 - 6000 warriors in the legion: 10 cohorts of three maniples each).
1. A signalman with a horn (sogpi) - a large curved metal horn, wearing a tunic with wide stripes in the middle.
2. Gladiator with a net (retiarius). He is protected only by a shell tied to his left arm, a belt with an apron and leggings with windings. 3. Mirmillo (mirmillo - gladiator in Gallic weapons). Helmet with visor, shield, belt, leggings and sword.
4. Thracian gladiator (thrax). The Thracian armament is the same as the myrmillon, and, in addition, there is another pair of greaves and a Thracian short curved saber (sica).
5. The chief of the gladiators (lanista) with a staff, in a wide tunic with two stripes, gesturing to stop the battle. Semi-open sandal boots.
1. Centurion (lat. centurio) - commander of a century. A scaly shell, on it are military insignia - silver phalerae (metal decorations). Decorated greaves, a double-folded cape, and a vine staff are the insignia of a centurion. Nearby is a helmet with a sultan, a sword in a sheath.
2. Senior officer. Cloak of fine purple wool. On the helmet there is a sultan in the form of a caterpillar. Round metal shield in early Greek style. Trajan's Column.
3. A horseman in a leather armor and trousers. Hexagonal shield made of leather skillfully trimmed with metal. Horseman's spear and long sword (spatha), which came into use from the end of the 1st century. AD
4. A soldier of the auxiliary army of the people allied to the Romans (Germans). An apron, a belt, a closed outer garment (paenula) with a hood, an oval shield, a sword, a dagger and two throwing spears. From a tombstone in Mainz.
Ancient Rome. Men's fashion
1. A toga laid in a simple manner over a tunic. The so-called statua togata (statue dressed in a toga), a portrait sculpture of an Etruscan in peacetime clothing.
2. Pontiff (pontifex) - a priest who performs a sacrifice. The toga also covers the head.
3. Provider of sacrificial animals or assistant to the priest during sacrifices - victimarius (victima - victim).
4. A resident of the city of Gabii in Latium, where the toga was worn in a special way: the end of the selected toga was thrown over the left shoulder and pulled up to the chest from under the right arm.
Left: coin with the head of Julius Caesar in a laurel wreath.
Right: coin from the reign of Emperor Aurelian (270 - 275 AD) with the imperial crown.
5. Julius Caesar addresses his soldiers. On top of the bronze-bound armor is a military cloak paludamentum, which was worn mainly by generals during war. It was longer than the usual military cloak sagum, and was fastened on the right shoulder with a clasp - an agraf.
6. Julius Caesar in a simple white men's toga (toga roga - pure toga, or toga virilis - toga of maturity), which the Romans had the right to wear from the age of 17.
7. An official in a speaker’s pose. The toga, bordered by one purple stripe (toga praetexta - bordered toga), was a distinctive sign of the Romans who held high positions.
8. The emperor wears a long cloak paludamentum, which was worn mainly by generals.
9. Lictor - a servant from the retinue accompanying the highest dignitaries, with a fascia (fastis - a bunch of rods, a sign of dignity).
10. The Emperor wears a long purple toga with a train, which was originally worn by censors - elected officials who monitored the receipt of taxes and the good behavior of the population. Permanent clothing of emperors, starting from the reign of Domitian (81 - 96 AD).
11. The Emperor wears a purple robe embroidered with gold over a belted toga.
12. The emperor performing a sacrifice, wearing a tunic and penule - a traveling cloak.
13. A young man in a pencil case.
14. Collar with hood (cucullus).
15. A pointed hat for protection from the sun, similar to the female hat of the Tanagra figurines.
Ancient Rome. Clothes of townspeople, women and priests
1. The charioteer (auriga) in the arena, wearing a colored tunic, with a palm branch - a sign of victory.
2. A man in a long, wide tunic (tunica talaris - tunic to the toes) without sleeves.
3. A villager wearing sheepskin clothing, high boots and a wide-brimmed hat.
4. A fisherman in a short shirt, leaving his chest exposed on the right.
5. Penula (cloak with a felt hood), rear view. The prototype of the North African burnous.
6. A slave in a highly belted tunic and sandals with windings.
7. Camillus - a young man of impeccable behavior from a respectable family who helps the priest during sacrifices. Belted tunic. Uncovered long hair, wreath.
8. A woman in a cloak and a short belted tunic, under which there is another tunic - an inner one, or subucula (shirt), longer, with tight-fitting sleeves.
9. A tunic made of a single piece of fabric (tunica recta - straight), reaching to the feet. A long veil under the tiara.
10. The wife of Drusus, a commander who successfully fought with the Germans at the end of the 1st century. BC
11. A woman in a belted tunic (tunica mulierbis - female).
12. Vestals - priestesses of Vesta, goddess of the hearth and chastity. A cloak and coverlet over a long tunic.
13. Senior Vestal Virgin.
14. Empress Agrippina the Elder (wife of Germanicus and mother of Caligula, who died in 33 AD). A tunic in small folds, with semi-long sleeves, with a cloak thrown over it. Wig with braids on the sides.
Hairstyles in Ancient Rome
The hairstyles of Roman women under Emperor Augustus were striking in their diversity. Noble ladies kept several slaves just to style their hairstyles. Those who could not afford it or did not strive for luxury, of course, were content with more modest hairstyles and scarves. Simple hairstyles with a parting and a knot generally corresponded to the Greek ones. But noble and middle-aged women preferred elaborate hairstyles. 28 shows a knot (nodus) with a bow of hair parted and laid crosswise. In addition to ribbons, they wore nets, headbands, tiaras or simple forehead hoops. A wavy hairstyle similar to the Greek one is shown on 26. Braids, selected in various ways, are shown on 23, 25 (rear view), 27. A widespread hairstyle of noble Roman women were curls in the form of rings, tightly adjacent to each other and arranged in rows - 20, 22, 23 The hairstyle of Empress Messalina looks very skillful and majestic, almost like the jagged top of a fortress wall (21).
Materials used in the article
Sidorenko V.I. History of styles in art and costume
Lyudmila Kibalova, Olga Gerbenova, Milena Lamarova. "Illustrated encyclopedia of FASHION. Translation into Russian by I.M. Ilyinskaya and A.A. Loseva
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Over the several centuries of its existence, ancient Roman society and its way of life changed significantly. At first, the cut and style of ancient Roman clothing was greatly influenced by the Greek tradition, however, over time, the clothing was transformed and acquired a completely different look. This was influenced by the militarized nature of the Roman Empire, and contact with other peoples and their traditions. How did clothing change in Ancient Rome and what were its main elements?
Clothing in Ancient Rome It was made from sheep's wool, flax, and silk, which was brought from the East. These fabrics made it possible to create robes reminiscent of Greek tunics and togas, draped with numerous folds. In later times, denser fabrics became popular, changing the silhouette and cut of clothes, making them more case-like.
The colors of clothing become more complex over time. The white color, popular in the early period of Roman history, gradually became solemn; people wore it only on holidays, and in Everyday life preferred bright and rich shades. In later times, Roman clothing began to abound in embroidery with complex geometric patterns. However, only wealthy people could afford it.
Outerwear in ancient Rome
Outerwear could tell a lot about its owner, his social status and ethnicity. The everyday outerwear of the male population in Rome was sheep wool toga, but only citizens could wear it. A purple toga was an attribute of a winner, a gray or black robe was a sign of mourning. There were also special togas for minor boys, clergy and candidates for official positions.
The toga was a semicircular piece of material that was wrapped around the body over the left shoulder, forming many draperies. It was not entirely comfortable to wear such a robe every day, so very quickly it turned into a formal one and gradually fell out of use. In everyday life, the Romans began to use penula - warm raincoat made of thick fabric, which was worn over the head. Thus, the body was covered on all sides, the head could be protected by a hood. Roman soldiers also wore a similar cloak; it differed from the usual civilian cloak in its short length and the presence of a clasp on the right shoulder.
Women's outerwear there was a palla cloak that went down to the ankles. The palla could go down freely or be secured with a belt at the waist. This cloak was made from fine wool; there were several options for its cut, as well as color options.
Men's and women's clothing in Ancient Rome was at first quite heavy and bulky, slowing down movement, so over time the cut evolved into a simpler and more comfortable one. This was greatly facilitated by the contacts of the Romans with the barbarian states of Europe.
Men's clothing in Ancient Rome
Men's clothing in ancient Rome was presented tunics various cuts, some of which were very reminiscent of Greek attire. They were made from linen or wool, and their length reached the knees. As a rule, tunics were loose shirts and were belted at the waist. They dressed over the head, for which there was a slit on the chest.
The appearance of the tunic depended on the social status of its owner. Peasants and slaves wore simple, dark, mostly brown clothing. Aristocrats they preferred white and decorated their clothes with embroidery, inlaid stones and precious clasps. By the tunic one could distinguish a senator from a commander, and from an ordinary soldier or priest.
Men's tunics They were sewn without sleeves, since they were considered a sign of effeminacy, but young men from aristocratic families sometimes liked to shock society by appearing on the street in the female version of the tunic with sleeves and a veil on their heads.
A toga was worn over the tunic. Often men wore several tunics one on top of the other.
Trousers were not worn in ancient Rome, they were considered the clothing of barbarians, unworthy of citizens of a great empire. However, the soldiers who served in northern borders, they still had to put on this unusual item of clothing to withstand the cold.
Women's clothing of Ancient Rome
At first, the daily clothing of Roman women was a longer type of tunic. As wealth grew, it was replaced by the table - a wide tunic with many folds and short sleeves. This robe reached to the feet, its bottom was decorated with ribbons or frills, and the waist was fastened with a belt. The basis of women's clothing Ancient Rome had graceful draperies that flowed downwards, and the table was no exception. This form of clothing was considered the privilege of free married women who have an impeccable reputation.
The color scheme of women's outfits was very diverse and distinguished by brightness and richness. For example, the bride's attire consisted of a long dress of bright red pala, which was worn over a tunic, and an orange veil was thrown over the girl's head. In everyday life they wore clothes in yellow, golden, blue, green and gray shades.
Instead of underwear Roman women used a lower tunic with a loincloth, over which was worn an upper tunic, and then a draping cloak, the palla or penula. Roman women used them or special veils to cover their heads from street dust. Head coverings of any kind were rarely used, in part because women of the Mediterranean Empire placed great importance on hair care and elaborate hairstyles.
The Romans wore sandals and shoes made of soft leather, which were decorated with embroidery and metal details. An important addition to clothing were numerous decorations made of precious metals and stones.
The clothing of Ancient Rome still attracts attention from designers and fashion fans because it allows you to create a beautiful silhouette. Thus, the aesthetic ideals of the Empire continue to exist, being further proof of the enormous contribution that ancient Roman culture made to the development of human civilization.
Shoes in ancient Rome
Types of Roman Shoes
A. Feather - shoes without a heel that covered the ankle were used throughout;
B. Calceus - shoes were worn with a dress and worn outside the home;
C. Calceus Patricius - closed shoes with transverse straps;
D. Caligae - used in the army, and was reinforced with iron or copper nails;
E. Soleae - shoes worn at home.
Recent research by German and British archaeologists has shown that the clothing worn by the inhabitants of Ancient Rome, contrary to established stereotypes, was very diverse. Apparently, bespoke tailoring was practiced in the empire from the first century AD. In addition, already in those days there was such a thing as a “brand”.
Many of us know from school that the clothes of the ancient Romans were not very diverse. We usually remember that noble Romans wore togas, which were a kind of long piece of linen, which sometimes reached a length of up to six meters. Moreover, the unfortunate Roman rich were forced to wrap it around themselves several times, which, of course, was impossible to do without outside help.
And ordinary citizens of the empire wore bag-like robes with cutouts for the arms and head, which did not emphasize at all, but, on the contrary, hid their figure. The only difference was that women wore a girdle directly under the bust, and men - on the hips. In addition, for some reason, many believe that these robes were mostly white or light gray. This misconception was probably created by numerous illustrators of history textbooks.
However, recent discoveries by archaeologists suggest that everything was not so. In fact, the clothing of the ancient Romans was very diverse. And what is most interesting, apparently, already in those days there was so-called individual tailoring.
As we know, clothes were mainly made from woolen fabrics in the Roman Empire. Materials from cotton, flax and nettle were also used, although much less frequently, and silk was completely exotic, since it was not produced locally, but was brought from distant China. The peak of the textile industry in Ancient Rome occurred at the beginning of our era, when, having captured Egypt, the Romans became acquainted with the local version of the loom. And soon the conquerors built up the entire country with clothing factories, that is, most of Europe and Asia Minor. This was genuine mass production, which, after the fall of the empire, returned to Europe only a thousand years later, during the High Middle Ages.
German historian Sylvia Mitschke from the Romano-Germanic Central Museum Mainzat (Germany) recently made an interesting discovery. While researching a local collection of Roman underwear, she discovered gussets, which are triangular panels along the seams to strengthen and expand the garment. Until now, it was believed that the size and shape of Roman clothing were determined solely by the size of the machine and the clothes were not adjusted to the figure in any way. This discovery, however, suggests that the Romans still knew a lot about fashion design.
It was also recently established that in the empire, apparently, there was such a thing as a “brand”. For example, in the Columba Museum in Cologne there is a tunic in the upper part of which the letter “kappa” is embroidered with red thread. Until recently, it was believed that this was a monogram of the owner’s name. However, now historians are inclined to assume that this is still the designer’s logo, since things with the same embroidery were recently found during excavations at the Roman fortress of Vindoland in the north of England. The time of manufacture of these garments varies, and they are unlikely to have belonged to the same person. And it is very doubtful that a Roman, who, as a rule, had several names, signed his clothes with just one letter.
In addition, excavations of this fortress refuted the myth that all legionnaires of the empire wore the same uniform. Judging by the finds, not only underwear, but also the shells of the ancient Romans were made to order. There are simply no two identical items of clothing and uniform among the discovered items.
By the way, the myth that the soldiers of Ancient Rome sported red cloaks was also finally dispelled. Findings indicate that the favorite color of this clothing was light gray, that is, the color of the earth. It was not only cheap (red dye, extracted from sea mollusks living in the Mediterranean Sea, then cost crazy money), but also practical - it was easier for a legionnaire dressed in a similar cloak to disguise himself. The officers' raincoats were dark brown, not crimson at all.
And, judging by scientists, red clothes in the empire were worn mainly by women. There is evidence that rich ladies dressed in exorbitantly expensive dresses (and in a variety of styles, sometimes even with sleeves) and raincoats painted in all shades of red. It is interesting that when it rained, these fashionable women urgently had to seek shelter, because when wet, the charming attire began to smell terribly like fish - after all, the dye, as we have already said, was extracted from the bodies of mollusks.
However, dresses and raincoats were far from the only women's clothing. Judging by a mosaic discovered on the floor of Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily, dating back to the late Roman era, ladies sometimes wore... bikinis! On the bodies of the women depicted there, there is something like beach panties and a bra, and this suit, as befits a real bikini, is separate. Most likely, scientists suggest, it was not a classic swimsuit, but simply two pieces of fabric, one of which was wrapped around the hips, and the other around the chest. It is noteworthy that in the image of women in these costumes they are not bathing at all, but are engaged in gymnastic exercises (or, perhaps, participating in some kind of mystery).
As for the classic toga, it was, of course, present in the wardrobe of noble Romans, but, apparently, it was not everyday wear. It was worn only on especially special occasions (perhaps this is why all the samples that have come down to us are very well preserved). And such even in Rome did not happen every day, so, apparently, most of the time togas were not used.
"The rulers of the world are a people dressed in togas"
Virgil "Aeneid"
Ancient Rome chose the culture it conquered as the foundation for its own culture Ancient Greece. The Romans adopted religion from the Greeks, only by renaming the gods. So, Aphrodite became Venus, and Zeus became Jupiter. From the Greeks, the Romans learned to build temples with columns and make sculptures from marble.
The main difference between the Romans and the Greeks was belligerence. Even during the Roman Republic, the Romans were famous for their warriors, and the Roman Empire included both territories North Africa, and the British Isles.
Statue of Emperor Augustus
Clothes - tunic, armor and toga on top
As for clothing, the traditional clothing of the Romans was based on the robe, which was transformed into a tunic, and the Greek cloak-himatium, which became the Roman toga.
The main fabrics from which the clothes of the ancient Romans were made were wool and linen; the Romans were also more familiar with silk, which was brought from another empire - the Chinese.
Still from the film "Caesar and Cleopatra" 1945
Caesar is dressed in a tunic (white) and toga
The Romans sewed clothes at home; there were almost no artisans involved in tailoring in the Roman Empire. Thus, Emperor Augustus, who lived in the 1st century BC, was proud that his tunics and togas were sewn first by his mother and then by his wife.
Tunic – rectangular cut clothing
from fine wool or linen,
worn under a toga as underwear
or used as a house dress.
All men of the Roman Empire wore tunics. The tunic was sewn at the shoulders and worn over the head. There were different kinds tunic Eg, tunic colobium had short sleeves and was always belted.
Tunic Talaris had long narrow sleeves and was worn by people of noble origin. Dalmatic tunic was longer with wide sleeves that, when unfolded, resembled a cross. The first Christians who lived in the Roman Empire often wore this type of tunic.
The toga is the outerwear of the citizens of Rome,
which is a piece of white woolen cloth
three times the height of a person and
draping intricately around the body.
Cloaks were worn over the tunic. One of which was the toga. However, only men and those of Roman origin could wear the toga. No wonder the Romans themselves called themselves a people dressed in togas.
A toga is a cloak made of a large piece of woolen fabric (6 by 1.8 meters), rectangular, and a little later elliptical in shape. The toga was wrapped around the figure and folded into folds. Slaves helped their master put on and drape the toga.
Caesar reproaches Cornelius Cinna for treason.
Those depicted in the painting are dressed in tunics and togas
Color played a big role in Roman costume. The colors of clothes could be very different, but most often the clothes were plain. The color of clothing in Rome was also given a certain meaning. Thus, purple was considered the color of power. Only emperors and triumphant commanders could wear purple clothes (triumphant commanders, for example, wore a toga called pictet - purple and embroidered with gold).
Purple stripes could appear on senators' clothing. Later, the color purple, as a symbol of power, was preserved in the robes of European kings and the vestments of cardinals of the Catholic Church.
The association of the color purple in clothing with power may have been due to the high cost of the clothing itself, dyed purple. The inhabitants of Phenicia, a people who lived on the Mediterranean coast, were able to obtain purple dye. They caught and crushed certain shellfish into powder, thus producing purple fabric dye. Fabric of this color was very expensive.
In addition to purple, white also had a certain meaning. White clothing was considered festive clothing. As for cloaks, in addition to the toga, the Romans also wore paludamentum, lacerna and penula.
Paludamentum- the cloak of the emperor and the highest nobility, it was thrown over the back and left shoulder, and on the right it was pinned with a buckle. The paludament could also be worn as a scarf - wrapped several times around the left hand.
Lacerna- This is a cloak in the form of a rectangular piece of fabric that covers the back and both shoulders, and is secured with a clasp at the front.
Penula- a leather or woolen cloak, in the shape of a semicircle, a hood could be sewn to it. This cloak was often worn by travelers and shepherds.
Sculpture of the Empress of Libya
As for women, the lower clothing of the Romans was also a tunic, always long, unlike the men's. Over the tunic, married women wore stola - a long garment with or without sleeves, belted under the chest with a belt (high waistline). The bottom of the table was decorated with a wide pleated frill, as well as a border along the collar and armholes. Slaves could not wear stola.
The cloak worn by Roman women was called palla. The palla was similar to the Greek himation, draped in various ways, with an overlap at the waist, and sometimes the top edge covered the head. By the way, unlike Greek women, Roman women could easily go out onto the streets of cities with. The palla cloak was fastened at the shoulders with clasps called agraphs.
Statue of praying Libya
Dressed in a pallu cloak
The Romans were also known for swimsuits - these were thin strips of fabric that were tied on the chest and hips. Roman women also wore strophies - the prototype of modern bras. Strophies (leather strips) were worn under tunics and their purpose was to support the chest from below.
Ancient Roman mosaic
Bathing suit
However, the costume of the ancient Romans was divided not only into women's and men's. It was also divided into civil and military. Roman legionary soldiers had reliable armor.
The expression “to put on a sagum” among the Romans meant “to start a war”
Still from the film Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar, 2000
Thus, in the era of the Empire, soldiers wore a sagum - a short cloak made of woolen fabric. Armor was a mandatory element. Military leaders wore scaly armor. Leather or metal greaves were attached to the legs. Also, after the wars with the Gaul tribes, Roman soldiers will begin to wear woolen trousers below the knees - mainly to protect their legs.
Legionnaires' footwear - kaligi - boots that were held on the feet with strong straps. The soldiers could not do without helmets. The Romans wore both leather and metal helmets in a wide variety of shapes. The helmets of centurions (commanders of military units) were decorated with a silver-plated crest, as well as a plume made of horsehair and feathers. The helmets of the standard bearers were covered with animal skin.
