StoryPoland is an immense fairy tale. Forever caught between two powerful and aggressive neighbors, Poland has defended its freedom and sovereignty countless times over the past millennium. It has gone from being the largest country in Europe to disappearing completely from the world map, and has seen its population shattered in two world wars. However, it shows the amazing resilience of the Polish people, and that Poland not only recovered from each devastating blow, but also retained the energy to maintain its own culture.
History of Poland in ancient times
The lands of modern Poland have been inhabited since the Stone Age by numerous tribes from the east and west who called its fertile plains home. Archaeological finds from the Stone and Bronze Ages can be seen in many Polish museums, but the greatest example of the pre-Slavic peoples is presented in Biskupin. This fortified city was built by the Lusatian tribe about 2,700 years ago. The Celts, the Germanic tribes, and then the Baltic people, all of them established themselves in Poland. But this was all before the arrival of the Slavs, who began to shape the country into a nation.
Although the exact date of the arrival of the first Slavic tribes is unknown, historians believe that the Slavs began to settle in Poland between the 5th and 8th centuries. Beginning in the 8th century, smaller tribes began to unite, creating large conglomerates, thus establishing themselves more fully in the lands of the future Polish state. The name of the country comes from one of these tribes - Polanie(“people of the fields”) - settled on the banks of the Warta River near the modern city of Poznan. The leader of this tribe, the legendary Piast, in the 10th century managed to unite disparate groups from the surrounding areas into a single political bloc, and gave it the name Polska, later Wielkopolska, that is, Greater Poland. This was the case until the arrival of Piast's great-great-grandson, Duke Mieszko I, who united a large part of Poland under one dynasty.
First Polish state
After Mieszko I converted to Christianity, he did what previous Christian rulers did and began to conquer his neighbors. Soon, the entire coastal region of Pomerania (Pomerania) came under his sovereignty, along with Slask (Silesia) and the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. By the time of his death in 992, the Polish state had approximately the same borders as modern Poland, and the city of Gniezno was appointed its first capital. By that time, cities such as Gdansk, Szczecin, Poznan, Wroclaw and Krakow already existed. Mieszko's son, Boleslaw I the Brave, continued his father's work, expanding the borders of Poland east to Kyiv. His son, Mieszko II, was less successful in his conquests, and during his reign the country experienced wars in the north and a period of internal strife within the royal family. Administrative center The country was transferred from Greater Poland to the less vulnerable Lesser Poland Voivodeship, where by the mid-11th century Krakow was designated as the center of royal rule.
When the pagan Prussians attacked the central province of Masovia in 1226, the Masovian Duke Conrad called for help from the Teutonic Knights and the German troops who made their mark during the Crusades. Soon, the knights conquered the pagan tribes, but then “bit the hand that fed them,” beginning massive construction of castles on Polish territory, conquering the port city of Gdansk, and effectively occupying northern Poland, claiming it as their territory. They ruled from their largest castle of all on Malbork and, within a few decades, became the main military power of Europe.
Casimir III and reunification
Only in 1320 was the Polish crown restored and the state was reunified. This happened during the reign Casimir III the Great(1333-1370), when Poland gradually became a prosperous and strong state. Casimir the Great restored suzerainty over Mazovia, then captured vast territories of Ruthenia (today Ukraine) and Podolia, thereby significantly expanding the borders of the monarchy to the southeast.
Casimir the Great was also an enlightened and energetic ruler on the home front. By developing and implementing reforms, he laid strong legal, economic, commercial and educational foundations. He also passed a law providing benefits for Jews, thereby making Poland a safe home for the Jewish community for centuries to come. More than 70 new cities were created. In 1364, one of the first universities in Europe was established in Krakow, and castles and fortifications were erected to improve the country's defenses. There is a saying that Casimir the Great “found Poland built of wood, but left it built with stones.”
Jagiellonian Dynasty (1382-1572)
The end of the 14th century is remembered by Poland for the dynastic union with Lithuania, the so-called political marriage, which increased Poland's territory fivefold overnight and lasted for the next four centuries. The unification benefited both sides - Poland received a partner in the fight against the Tatars and Mongols, and Lithuania received help in the fight against the Teutonic Order. Under power Vladislav II Jagiello(1386-1434), the alliance defeated the knights and restored eastern Pomerania, part of Prussia and the port of Gdansk, and for the next 30 years the Polish Empire was the largest state in Europe, stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea.
Eastern Progress and the Golden Age of Poland
But it didn't last long. The threat of invasion became obvious towards the end of the 15th century - this time the main instigators were the Turks from the south, the Crimean Tatars from the east and the Muscovite kings from the north and east. Together or separately, they repeatedly invaded and raided the eastern and southern parts of Polish territories, and at one point penetrated as far as Krakow.
Despite this, the power of the Polish kingdom was firmly established and the country advanced both culturally and spiritually. The beginning of the 16th century brought the Renaissance to Poland, and during the reign Sigismund I the Old and his son Sigismund II Augustus art and science flourished. This was Poland's Golden Age, which produced great men such as Nicolaus Copernicus.
Most of Poland's population at this time was made up of Poles and Lithuanians, but included significant minorities from neighboring countries. Jews formed an important and growing part of society, and by the end of the 16th century Poland had a larger Jewish population than the rest of united Europe.
On the political front, Poland developed in the 16th century into a parliamentary monarchy with most privileges held by the szlachta (nobility, feudal nobility), who made up approximately 10% of the population. At the same time, the status of the peasants decreased, and they gradually fell into a state of virtual slavery.
Hoping to strengthen the monarchy, the Diet, convened in Lublin in 1569, united Poland and Lithuania into a single state, and made Warsaw the place of future meetings. Since there was no direct heir to the throne, the Sejm also established a system of succession based on voting by nobles in general elections, who must travel to Warsaw to vote. In the absence of serious Polish applicants, foreign candidates could also be considered.
Royal Republic (1573-1795)
From the very beginning, the experiment led to disastrous consequences. For every royal election, foreign powers promoted their candidates by cutting deals and bribing voters. During this period, no less than 11 kings ruled Poland, and only four of them were Poles by birth.
The first chosen king, Henri de Valois, retreated to his homeland to ascend the French throne after only a year on the Polish throne. His successor Stefan Batory(1576-1586), Prince of Transylvania, was a much wiser choice. Batory, together with his gifted commander and chancellor Jan Zamoyski, fought a number of successful battles against Tsar Ivan the Terrible and came close to concluding an alliance with Russia against the Ottoman Empire.
After Batory's premature death, the crown was offered to the Swede, Sigismund III Vasa(1587-1632), and during his reign Poland reached its maximum expansion (three times the size of modern Poland). Despite this, Sigismund is best remembered for moving the Polish capital from Krakow to Warsaw between 1596 and 1609.
The beginning of the 17th century was a turning point in the fate of Poland. The increasing political power of the Polish gentry undermined the authority of the Sejm. The country was divided into several huge private estates, and the nobles, upset by the ineffective government, resorted to armed rebellion.
Meanwhile, foreign invaders systematically divided up the land. Jan II Casimir Vasa(1648-68), the last of the Waza dynasty on the Polish throne, was unable to resist the aggressors - Russians, Tatars, Ukrainians, Cossacks, Turks and Swedes - who were approaching on all fronts. Swedish invasion in 1655-1660, known as the Flood, was particularly disastrous.
The last bright spot in the fall of the Royal Republic was the dominance John III Sobieski(1674-96), a brilliant commander who led several victorious battles against the Ottoman Empire. The most famous of these was the Battle of Vienna in 1683, in which he defeated the Turks.
The Rise of Russia
By the beginning of the 18th century, Poland was in decline, and Russia had become a powerful, expansive empire. The tsars systematically strengthened their power throughout the revolving country, and the rulers of Poland actually became puppets of the Russian regime. This became quite clear during the reign Stanisław August Poniatowski(1764-95), when Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, intervened directly in Polish affairs. The collapse of the Polish Empire was just around the corner.
Three sections
While Poland was languishing, Russia, Prussia and Austria were gaining strength. The late 18th century was a disastrous period for the country, with neighboring powers agreeing to partition Poland on no fewer than three separate occasions within a span of 23 years. The First Partition led to immediate reforms and a new, liberal constitution, and Poland remained relatively stable. Catherine the Great could no longer tolerate this dangerous democracy, and sent Russian troops to Poland. Despite fierce resistance, the reforms were reversed by force and the country was divided a second time.
Enter Tadeusha Kosciuszko, hero of the American Revolutionary War. With the help of patriotic forces, he launched an armed uprising in 1794. The campaign soon gained public support and the rebels scored some early victories, but Russian troops, stronger and better armed, defeated the Polish forces within a year. Resistance and unrest remained within Polish borders, which led the three occupying powers to a third and final partition. Poland disappeared from the map for the next 123 years.
Struggle for independence
Despite the partitions, Poland continued to exist as a spiritual and cultural community, and many secret nationalist societies were created. Since revolutionary France was perceived as the main ally in the struggle, some leaders fled to Paris and established their headquarters there.
In 1815, the Congress of Vienna created the Congress of the Kingdom of Poland, but Russian oppression continued. In response, armed uprisings broke out, the most significant of which occurred in 1830 and 1863. There was also a rebellion against the Austrians in 1846.
In the 1870s, Russia dramatically increased its efforts to eradicate Polish culture, suppressing the Polish language in education, government and commerce, and replacing it with Russian. However, it was also a time of great industrialization in Poland, with cities such as Lodz experiencing an economic boom. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Poland's fortunes changed once again.
First World War (1914-18)
The First World War saw Poland's three occupying powers enter the war. On one side were the Central Powers, Austria-Hungary and Germany (including Prussia), on the other side were Russia and its Western allies. Most of the fighting was organized on Polish lands, resulting in huge losses of life and livelihood. Since no official Polish state existed, there was no Polish army to fight for the national cause. To make matters worse, some two million Poles were conscripted into the Russian, German or Austrian armies and were forced to fight each other.
Paradoxically, the war ultimately led to Polish independence. After October revolution in 1917, Russia plunged into civil war and no longer had the power to oversee Polish affairs. The final collapse of the Austrian Empire in October 1918 and the withdrawal of the German army from Warsaw in November brought an opportune moment. Marshal Józef Pilsudski took control of Warsaw on November 11, 1918, declared Polish sovereignty and usurped power as head of state.
The Rise and Fall of the Second Republic
Poland began its new incarnation in a hopeless situation - the country and its economy lay in ruins, and about a million Poles died in the First World War. All state institutions - including the army, which had not existed for more than a century - had to be built from scratch.
Treaty of Versailles in 1919 he awarded Poland the western part of Prussia, providing access to the Baltic Sea. The city of Gdansk, however, became the free city of Danzig. The rest of Poland's western border was drawn up through a series of plebiscites, which led Poland to acquire some significant industrial areas of Upper Silesia. The eastern borders were established when Polish forces defeated the Red Army during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-20.
When Poland's territorial struggle ended, the Second Republic covered almost 400,000 square meters. km and had a population of 26 million. One third of the population was of non-Polish ethnic origin, mainly Jews, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Germans.
After Piłsudski retired from political life in 1922, the country experienced four years of unstable government until the great commander seized power in a military coup in May 1926. Parliament was gradually reduced in size, but despite the dictatorial regime, political repression had little effect on ordinary people. The economic situation was relatively stable, and cultural and intellectual life flourished.
On the international front, Poland's position in the 1930s was unenviable. In an attempt to normalize relations with its two inexorably hostile neighbors, Poland signed non-aggression pacts both with the Soviet Union and Germany. However, it soon became clear that the treaties did not provide any real security guarantees.
August 23, 1939, a non-aggression pact was signed in Moscow between Germany and the Soviet Union by foreign ministers Ribbentrop and Molotov. This treaty contained a secret protocol defining the proposed division of Eastern Europe between the two great powers.
World War II (1939-45)
World War II began at dawn September 1, 1939 years since the massive German invasion of Poland. The fighting began in Gdańsk (then the free city of Danzig) when German forces encountered a stubborn handful of Polish partisans at Westerplatte. The battle lasted a week. At the same time, another German line stormed Warsaw, which eventually surrendered on 28 September. Despite valiant resistance, there was simply no hope of countering the overwhelming and well-armed German forces numerically; the last resistance groups were suppressed by early October. Hitler's policy was to destroy the Polish nation and Germanize the territory. Hundreds of thousands of Poles were sent to forced labor camps in Germany, while others, most notably the intelligentsia, were executed in an attempt to exterminate spiritual and intellectual leadership.
The Jews were to be eliminated completely. They were first separated and imprisoned in ghettos, and then sent to concentration camps scattered throughout the country. Almost the entire Jewish population of Poland (three million) and approximately one million Poles died in the camps. Resistance broke out in numerous ghettos and camps, the most famous of which was in Warsaw.
Within weeks of the Nazi invasion, the Soviet Union moved into Poland and claimed the eastern half of the country. Thus, Poland was again divided. Mass arrests, exiles and executions followed, and it is believed that between one and two million Poles were sent to Siberia, the Soviet Arctic and Kazakhstan in 1939–40. Just like the Nazis, the Soviet army set in motion a process of intellectual genocide.
Shortly after the outbreak of the war, a Polish government in exile was formed in France under the command of General Władysław Sikorski and then Stanisław Mikołajczyk. As the front line moved west, this established government was moved to London in June 1940.
The course of the war changed dramatically when Hitler launched a surprise attack on the Soviet Union June 22, 1941. Soviet troops were driven out of Eastern Poland and all of Poland came under Nazi control. The Führer set up camp deep in Polish territory and remained there for more than three years.
Nationwide movement Resistance, concentrated in the cities, was put in place shortly after the end of the war to manage Polish educational, judicial and communications systems. Armed units were created by the government-in-exile in 1940, and they became the Home Army (AK; Home Army), which figured prominently in the Warsaw Uprising.
Surprisingly, given Soviet treatment of the Poles, Stalin turned to Poland for help in the war against German forces advancing east towards Moscow. The official Polish army was reformed at the end of 1941, but was largely under Soviet control.
Hitler's defeat at Stalingrad in 1943 marked the turning point of the war on the Eastern Front, and the Red Army successfully advanced westward. After Soviet troops liberated the Polish city of Lublin, the Polish Pro-Communist Committee for National Liberation (PCNL) was established on July 22, 1944, and took over the functions of the provisional government. A week later, the Red Army reached the outskirts of Warsaw.
Warsaw remained under Nazi occupation at the time. In a last-ditch attempt to create an independent Polish administration, the AK attempted to gain control of the city before the arrival of Soviet troops, with disastrous results. The Red Army continued its march west through Poland, reaching Berlin a few months later. On May 8, 1945, the Nazi Reich capitulated.
At the end of World War II, Poland lay in ruins. More than six million people, about 20% of the pre-war population, lost their lives, and of the three million Polish Jews in 1939, only 80-90 thousand survived the war. Its cities were little more than rubble, and only 15% of Warsaw's buildings survived. Many Poles who had seen war in foreign countries decided not to return to the new political order.
On Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin decided to leave Poland under Soviet control. They agreed that Poland's eastern border would roughly follow the 1939 Nazi-Soviet demarcation line. Six months later, Allied leaders established Poland's western border along the rivers: Odra (Oder) and Nisa (Neisse); in effect the country has returned to its medieval borders.
Radical border changes were accompanied by population movements: Poles were moved into the newly defined Poland, while Germans, Ukrainians and Belarusians were resettled outside its borders. Eventually, 98% of Poland's population became ethnically Polish.
Once Poland formally came under Soviet control, Stalin began an intensive campaign of Sovietization. Military resistance leaders were accused of collaborating with the Nazis, and were shot or sentenced to arbitrary prison terms. A provisional Polish government was created in Moscow in June 1945 and then moved to Warsaw. General elections were postponed until 1947 to give the secret police time to arrest prominent Polish political figures. After falsified election results, the new Sejm elected Bolesław Bierut as president; Stanisław Mikolajczyk, accused of espionage, fled back to England.
In 1948, in order to monopolize power, the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP) was formed, and in 1952 a Soviet-style constitution was adopted. The post of president was abolished and power was transferred to the first secretary of the Party Central Committee. Poland became part of the Warsaw Pact.
Stalinist fanaticism never gained as much influence in Poland as in neighboring countries, and soon after Stalin's death in 1953 it all disappeared. The powers of the secret police were reduced. The pressure was relieved and Polish cultural assets were resuscitated.
In June 1956, a massive industrial strike broke out in Poznan, demanding ‘bread and freedom’. The action was suppressed by force, and soon Wladyslaw Gomulka, a former political prisoner of the Stalin era, was appointed first secretary of the Party. At first he commanded public support, but later he showed a harsher and more authoritarian attitude, putting pressure on the church and intensifying the persecution of the intelligentsia. Ultimately there was an economic crisis that caused its downfall; when he announced an official price increase in 1970, a wave of mass strikes broke out in Gdańsk, Gdynia and Szczecin. Again, protests were suppressed by force, resulting in 44 deaths. The party, in order to save its face, removed Gomulka from office and replaced him with Edward Gierek.
Another attempt to raise prices in 1976 incited labor protests, and again workers walked off the job, this time in Radom and Warsaw. Caught in a downward spiral, Gierek took out more foreign loans, but in order to earn the hard currency on which to pay interest, he was forced to divert consumer goods from the domestic market and sell them abroad. By 1980, foreign debt reached US$21 billion and the economy slumped.
By then, the opposition had become a significant force, supported by numerous advisors from intellectual circles. When the government again announced food price increases in July 1980, the result was predictable: heated and well-organized strikes and riots spread like wildfire throughout the country. In August they paralyzed largest ports, Silesian coal mines and the Lenin shipyard in Gdansk.
Unlike most previous popular protests, the 1980 strikes were nonviolent; The strikers did not take to the streets, but remained in their factories.
Solidarity
August 31, 1980, after long, protracted negotiations at the Lenin shipyard, the government signed the Gdansk Agreement. This forced the ruling party to accept most of the strikers' demands, including the right of workers to organize independent trade unions and go on strike. In turn, the workers agreed to adhere to the constitution and accept the power of the Party as supreme.
Delegations of workers from all over the country convened and founded Solidarity(Solidarność), a nationwide independent and self-governing trade union. Lech Walesa, who led the strike in Gdansk, was elected chairman.
The ripple effect was not long in coming, causing hesitation in the government. Zirek was replaced by Stanislaw Kania, who in turn lost in October 1981 to General Wojciech Jaruzelski. However, the trade union's greatest influence was on Polish society. After 35 years of restraint, the Poles have embroiled themselves in a spontaneous and chaotic form of democracy. Comprehensive debate on the reform process was spearheaded by Solidarity, and an independent press flourished. Such taboo historical topics as the Stalin-Hitler Pact and the Katyn massacres could, for the first time, be discussed openly.
Not surprisingly, Solidarity's 10 million participants represented a wide range of views, from confrontational to conciliatory. By and large, it was Walesa's charismatic authority that kept the union on a moderate and balanced course.
The government, however, under pressure from Soviet and local hard-liners, was reluctant to introduce any significant reforms and systematically rejected Solidarity's proposals. This led to further discontent and, in the absence of other legal options, more strikes. Amid the fruitless debate, the economic crisis became more serious. Following failed negotiations in November 1981 between the government, Solidarity and the church, social tensions increased and led to a political stalemate.
Martial law and the collapse of communism
When General Jaruzelski unexpectedly appeared on television in the early hours of the morning December 13, 1981 To declare martial law, tanks were already on the streets, army checkpoints were set up on every corner, and paramilitary troops were stationed at possible hotspots. Power was transferred to the hands of the Military Council of National Salvation (WRON), a group of officers under the command of Jaruzelski himself.
Solidarity activities were suspended and all public meetings, demonstrations and strikes were prohibited. Several thousand people, including most of the Solidarity and Walesa leaders, were interned. The spontaneous demonstrations and strikes that followed were crushed, military rule effectively took effect across Poland within two weeks of its declaration, and life returned to the days before the creation of Solidarity.
In October 1982, the government officially dissolved Solidarity and released Walesa. In July 1984, a limited amnesty was announced and some members of the political opposition were released from prison. But, after each public protest, arrests continued, and only in 1986, all political prisoners were released.
Election Gorbachev in the Soviet Union in 1985 and its glasnost and perestroika programs provided an important impetus for democratic reform throughout Eastern Europe. By early 1989, Jaruzelski had softened his position and allowed the opposition to compete for seats in parliament.
Unfree elections were held in June 1989, in which Solidarity succeeded in winning an overwhelming majority of the votes of its supporters and was elected to the Senate, the upper house of parliament. The Communists, however, won 65% of the seats in the Sejm. Jaruzelski was placed in the presidency as a stabilizing guarantor of political change for both Moscow and the local communists, but a non-communist prime minister, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, was installed as a result of Walesa's personal pressure. This power-sharing agreement with the first non-communist prime minister in Eastern Europe since World War II paved the way for the domino-like collapse of communism throughout the Soviet bloc. In 1990 the Party historically dissolved itself.
The Free Market and the Times of Lech Wales
In January 1990, Finance Minister Leszek Balcerowicz introduced a package of reforms to replace the centrally planned communist system with a market economy. His economic shock therapy allowed prices to float freely, subsidies were removed, money was tightened, and the currency was sharply devalued, making it fully convertible with Western currencies.
The effect was almost instantaneous. Within a few months, the economy seemed to have stabilized, food shortages were no longer in evidence, and stores were stocked with goods. On the other hand, prices have soared and unemployment rates have risen. An initial wave of optimism and patience turned to uncertainty and discontent, and austerity measures caused the government's popularity to decline.
In November 1990, Walesa won the first completely free presidential election, and Third Polish Republic. During his statutory five-year tenure, Poland witnessed no fewer than five governments and five prime ministers, each of whom struggled to get the newborn democracy on track.
Following his election, Walesa appointed Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, an economist and former adviser, as prime minister. His cabinet attempted to continue the strict economic policies introduced by the previous government, but was unable to maintain parliamentary support and resigned a year later. At least 70 parties contested the country's first free parliamentary elections in October 1991, which resulted in the installation of Prime Minister Jan Olszewski at the head of a centre-right coalition. Olszewski lasted only five months, and was replaced by Hannah Suchocka in June 1992. Suchocka was, in Poland, the first woman prime minister, and she was called the Polish Margaret Thatcher. Under her coalition rule, she was able to command a parliamentary majority, but divisions grew on many issues, and she lost the elections in June 1993.
Return of the communist regime
An impatient Walesa stepped in, dissolving parliament and calling general elections. His decision was a grave miscalculation. The pendulum swung and the elections led to a coalition of the Democratic Left (SLD) and the Polish Peasant Party (PSL).
The new government, led by PSL leader Waldemar Pawlak, continued with general market reform, but the economy began to slow. Continued tensions within the coalition led to a decline in her popularity, and her battles with the president brought further changes in February 1995, when Walesa threatened to dissolve parliament unless Pawlak was replaced. The fifth and final prime minister of Walesa's presidency was Józef Oleksy: another former Communist Party official.
Wales's presidential style and achievements have been repeatedly questioned by virtually all political parties and the majority of the electorate. His bizarre behavior and capricious use of power caused a decline in the success he had enjoyed in 1990 and led to his lowest-ever level of public support in 1995, when polls indicated that only 8% of the country would prefer him as president for another term. . Despite this, Walesa maneuvered energetically and came quite close to winning a second term.
The November 1995 elections were essentially a tight contest between the anti-communist people's figure, Lech Walesa, and the young, former communist technocrat and leader of the SLD, Aleksander Kwasniewski. Kwasniewski was ahead of Wales, but by a small margin of only 3.5%.
Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz, another former Communist party official, took over as prime minister. In reality, the post-communists have a stranglehold on power, controlling the presidency, government and parliament - the 'red triangle' - as Walesa warned. The center and right - almost half the political nation - have effectively lost control of the decision-making process. The Church favored by Walesa during his reign also suffered setbacks and warned believers against the dangers of "neopaganism" under the new regime.
Establishing balance
By 1997, the electorate clearly understood that things had gone too far. Parliamentary elections in September were won by an alliance of about 40 small Solidarity offshoot parties, collectively called the Electoral Action of Solidarity (AWS). The union formed a coalition with the centrist liberal Union of Freedom (UW), pushing ex-communists into opposition. Jerzy Buzek of AWS became prime minister, and the new government accelerated the privatization of the country.
President Kwasniewski's political style was in sharp contrast to his predecessor Walesa. Kwasniewski brought political calm during his reign and was able to successfully cooperate with the left and right wings of the political establishment. This won him a significant degree of popular support, and paved the way for another five-year term in office.
At least 13 people challenged the October 2000 presidential election, but none came close to Kwasniewski, who won with 54% of the popular vote. Centrist businessman Andrzej Olechowski came second with 17% support, while Walesa, trying his luck a third time, was defeated with just 1% of the vote.
On the way to Europe
On the international front, Poland was granted full NATO membership in March 1999, while at home parliamentary elections in September 2001 changed the political axis once again. The Union of Democratic Left (SLD) staged its second comeback, occupying 216 seats in the Diet. The party formed a coalition with the Polish Peasant Party (PSL), repeating the shaky alliance of 1993, and a former senior Communist Party official, Leszek Miller, took over as prime minister.
Poland's largest movement in the 21st century was joining the European Union May 1, 2004. The next day, Miller resigned amid a string of corruption scandals and unrest over high unemployment and low living standards. His replacement, the respected economist Marek Belka, lasted until the elections in September 2005, when the conservative Law and Justice (PiS) party and the liberal-conservative Civic Platform (PO) party took power. In total, they received 288 seats in the Sejm out of 460. PiS member Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz was appointed prime minister, and a month later, another PiS member, Lech Kaczynski, took the presidential seat.
History of Poland today
Unsurprisingly, Marcinkiewicz did not last long and resigned in July 2006 over an alleged estrangement with PiS leader, Jaroslaw Kaczynski. Yaroslav, the president's twin brother, was quickly appointed to this position. However, his dominance was short-lived - in early elections in October 2007, Yaroslav lost to the more liberal and EU-friendly Donald Tusk and his Civic Platform party.
President Kaczynski, his wife and dozens of senior officials were killed April 10, 2010 when their plane crashed in the Katyn forest near Smolensk. A total of 96 people died in the crash, including Poland's deputy foreign minister, 12 members of parliament, heads of the army and navy, and the president of the national bank. Bronislaw Komorowski, leader of the lower house of parliament, took on the role of acting president.
Kaczynski's twin brother and former prime minister, Jaroslaw Kaczynski, ran for president against Bronislaw Komorowski, who leads the Civic Platform party. Komorowski won the first and second rounds of elections and was recognized as president in July.
Despite countless reforms and coalitions, Poland is still wavering in political and economic interests. But given its turbulent past, the country has found some stability and enjoys self-rule and peace.
The history of each country is shrouded in secrets, beliefs and legends. The history of Poland was no exception. In its development, Poland has experienced many ups and downs. Several times it fell into the occupation of other countries, was barbarously divided, which led to devastation and chaos, but despite this, Poland, like a phoenix, always rose from the ashes and became even stronger. Today Poland is one of the most developed European countries, with a rich culture, economy and history.
The history of Poland dates back to the 6th century. Legend says that there once lived three brothers, and their names were Lech, Czech and Russ. They wandered with their tribes through various territories and finally found a cozy place that stretched between the rivers called the Vistula and the Dnieper. Towering above all this beauty was a large and ancient oak tree, on which was an eagle’s nest. Here Lech decided to found the city of Gniezno. And the eagle, from which it all began, began to sit on the coat of arms of the founded state. The brothers went on to seek their happiness. And so two more states were founded: the Czech Republic in the south, and Rus' in the east.
The first documented memories of Poland date back to 843. The author, who was nicknamed the Bavarian Geographer, described the tribal settlement of the Lechites, who lived in the territory between the Vistula and Odra. It had its own language and culture. And it was not subordinate to any neighboring state. This territory was remote from the commercial and cultural centers of Europe, which for a long time kept it hidden from the onslaught of nomads and conquerors. In the 9th century, several large tribes emerged from the Lechites:
- Polyana - established their settlement in the territory that was later called Greater Poland. The main centers were Gniezno and Poznan;
- Vistula - with its center in Krakow and Wislicia. This settlement was called Lesser Poland;
- Mazovszane – center in Płock;
- Kujawians, or, as the Goplians were also called, in Kruszwitz;
- Ślęzyany – center of Wrocław.
The tribes could boast of a clear hierarchical structure and primitive state foundations. The territory where the tribes lived was called “opole”. It was ruled by elders - people from the most ancient families. In the center of each “opole” there was a “grad” - a fortification that protected people from bad weather and enemies. The elders sat hierarchically at the highest level of the population, they had their own retinue and security. All issues were resolved at a meeting of men - “veche”. Such a system shows that even in times of tribal relations, the history of Poland developed in a progressive and civilized manner.
The most developed and powerful of all the tribes was the Vistula tribe. Situated in the Upper Vistula basin, they had large and fertile lands. The center was Krakow, which was connected by trade routes with Russia and Prague. Such comfortable living conditions attracted more and more people, and soon the Vistula became the largest tribe, with developed external and political contacts. It is generally accepted that they already had their own “prince sitting on the Vistula.”
Unfortunately, almost no information has survived about the ancient princes. We know only about one prince of Polyan, named Popel, who sat in the city of Gnezdo. The prince was not very good and fair, and for his actions he received what he deserved; he was first overthrown, and then expelled from everyone. The throne was occupied by a simple hard worker Semovit, the son of the plowman Piast and the woman Repka. He ruled with dignity. Together with him, two more princes sat in power - Lestko and Semomysl. They united various neighboring tribes under their rule. The conquered cities were ruled by their governors. They also built new castles and fortifications for defense. The prince had a developed squad and thereby kept the tribes in obedience. Prince Semovit prepared such a good bridgehead for his son, the great and just first ruler of Poland, Meshko I.
Mieszko I sat on the throne from 960 to 992. During his reign, the history of Poland underwent a number of radical changes. He doubled his territories by conquering Gdańsk Pomerania, Western Pomerania, Silesia and the Vistula lands. He turned them into rich territories, both demographically and economically. The number of his squad was several thousand, which helped restrain the tribes from uprisings. In his state, Mieszko I introduced a tax system for peasants. Most often these were food and agricultural products. Sometimes taxes were paid in the form of services: construction, crafts, etc. This helped to upset the state and prevent people from giving away their last piece of bread. This method suited both the prince and the population. The ruler also had monopoly rights - “regalia” for increasingly significant and profitable areas of the economy, for example, coinage, mining of precious metals, market fees, and fees from beaver hunting. The prince was the sole ruler of the country, he was surrounded by a retinue and several military leaders who assisted in state affairs. Power was transferred according to the principle of “primogeniture” and within the ranks of one dynasty. With his reforms, Mieszko I won the title of founder of the Polish state, with a developed economy and defense capability. His marriage to Princess Dobrava from the Czech Republic and the holding of this ceremony according to the Catholic rite became the impetus for the adoption of Christianity by a once pagan state. This marked the beginning of Poland's acceptance by Christian Europe.
Boleslav the Brave After the death of Meshko I, his son Boleslav (967-1025) ascended the throne. For his fighting power and courage in defending his country, he received the nickname Brave. He was one of the smartest and most inventive politicians. During his reign, the country expanded its possessions and significantly strengthened its position on the world map. At the beginning of his journey, he was actively involved in various missions to introduce Christianity and his power into the territories occupied by the Prussians. They were peaceful in nature and in 996 he sent Bishop Adalbert, in Poland he was called Wojciech Slawnikowiec, to the territories controlled by the Prussians to preach Christianity. In Poland he was called Wojciech Slawnikowiec. A year later he was killed, cut into several pieces. To ransom his body, the prince paid as much gold as the bishop weighed. The Pope heard this news and canonized Bishop Adalbert, who over the years became the heavenly protector of Poland.
After failed peace missions, Bolesław began to annex territories using fire and weapons. He increased the size of his squad to 3,900 mounted soldiers and 13,000 infantry, turning his army into one of the largest and most powerful. The desire to win led to ten years of problems for Poland with a state like Germany. In 1002, Boleslav seized the territories that were under the control of Henry II. Also, 1003-1004 was marked by the seizure of territories that belonged to the Czech Republic, Moravia and a small part of Slovakia. In 1018, the Kiev throne was occupied by his son-in-law Svyatopolk. True, he was soon overthrown by the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Boleslav signed an agreement with him guaranteeing non-aggression, since he considered him a good and smart ruler. Another path to diplomatic resolution of conflicts was the Gnieznay Congress (1000). This was Boleslaw's meeting with the German ruler Otto III, during a pilgrimage to the tomb of the holy Bishop Wojciech. At this congress, Otto III nicknamed Boleslav the Brave his Brother and Partner of the Empire. He also placed a diadem on his head. In turn, Boleslav presented the German ruler with the brush of the holy bishop. This union led to the creation of an archbishopric in the city of Gniezno and bishoprics in several cities, namely Krakow, Wroclaw, Kolobrzeg. Bolesław the Brave, through his efforts, developed the policy begun by his father to promote Christianity in Poland. Such recognition from Otto III and later the Pope led to the fact that on April 18, 1025, Boleslaw the Brave was crowned and became the first King of Poland. Boleslav did not enjoy the title for a long time and died a year later. But the memory of him as a good ruler lives on today.
Despite the fact that power in Poland was passed from father to eldest son, Boleslav the Brave bequeathed the throne to his favorite - Mieszko II (1025-1034), and not Besprima. Mieszko II did not distinguish himself as a good ruler even after several high-profile defeats. They led to Mieszko II renouncing the royal title and dividing the appanage lands between his younger brother Otto and his close relative Dietrich. Although until the end of his life he was still able to reunite all the lands, he failed to achieve the former power for the country.
The destroyed lands of Poland and feudal fragmentation, this is what Mieszko II’s eldest son, Casimir, who later received the nickname “Restorer” (1038-1050), inherited from his father. He established his residence in Kruszwitz and this became the center of defensive missions against the Czech king, who wanted to steal the relics of Bishop Adalbert. Casimir started the war of liberation. The first to become his enemy was Metslav, who occupied large areas of Poland. It was a huge stupidity to attack such a powerful opponent alone, and Casimir asked for the support of the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav the Wise not only helped Casimir in military affairs, but also became related to him by marrying him to his sister Maria Dobronega. The Polish-Russian army actively fought against the army of Metslav, and Emperor Henry III attacked the Czech Republic, thereby removing Czech troops from the territory of Poland. Casimir the Restorer gets the opportunity to freely restore his state, his economic and military policies have brought many positive changes to the life of the country. In 1044, he actively expanded the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and moved his court to Krakow, making it the central city of the country. Despite Metslav's attempts to attack Krakow and overthrow the Piast heir from the throne, Casimir mobilizes all his forces in time and deals with the enemy. At the same time, in 1055, he annexed Slask, Mazowsza and Silesia, once controlled by the Czechs, to his possessions. Casimir the Restorer became a ruler who managed, bit by bit, to unite and transform Poland into a strong and developed state.
After the death of Casimir the Restorer, an internecine struggle for the throne broke out between Bolesław II the Generous (1058-1079) and Władysław Herman (1079-1102). Bolesław II continued the policy of conquest. He repeatedly attacked Kyiv and the Czech Republic, fought against the policies of Henry IV, which led to the fact that in 1074 Poland declared its independence from the imperial power and became a state that was under the protection of the Pope. And already in 1076 Boleslav was crowned and recognized as the King of Poland. But the strengthening of the power of the magnates, and the constant battles that tired the people, led to an uprising. It was headed by his younger brother Vladislav. The king was overthrown and expelled from the country.
Vladislav German took power. He was a passive politician. He renounced the title of king and returned the title of prince. All his actions were aimed at reconciliation with his neighbors: peace treaties were signed with the Czech Republic and the Roman Empire, taming local magnates and fighting the aristocracy. This led to the loss of some territories and the displeasure of the people. Uprisings began against Władysław, led by his sons (Zbigniew and Bolesław). Zbigniew became the ruler of Greater Poland, Boleslaw - Lesser Poland. But this situation did not suit the younger brother, and on his orders the older brother was blinded and expelled because of his alliance with the Roman Empire and the invasion of Poland. After this event, the throne completely passed to Boleslav Wrymouth (1202-1138). He defeated German and Czech troops several times, which led to further reconciliation between the heads of these states. Having dealt with external problems, Boleslav set his sights on Pomerania. In 1113, he captured the area near the Notets River, also the Naklo fortress. And already 1116-1119. subjugated Gdansk and Pomerania in the east. Unprecedented battles were fought to capture Western Primorye. A rich and developed region. A series of successful operations carried out in 1121 led to the fact that Szczecin, Rügen, Wolin recognized the suzerainty of Poland. A policy began to promote Christianity in these territories, which further strengthened the significance of the prince’s power. The Pomeranian bishopric was opened in Wolin in 1128. Uprisings broke out in these territories more than once, and Bolesław pledged Danish support to put them out. For this, he gave the territory of Rügen to Danish rule, but the remaining territories remained under the overlord of Poland, although not without homage to the emperor. Before his death in 1138, Bolesław Wrymouth created a will - a statute according to which he divided the territories between his sons: the eldest Władysław sat in Silesia, the second, named Bolesław, in Mazovia and Kuyavia, the third Mieszko - in part of Greater Poland with the center in Poznan, the fourth son Henry, received Lublin and Sandomierz, and the youngest, named Casimir, was left in the care of his brothers without lands or power. The remaining lands passed into the power of the eldest of the Piast family and formed an autonomous inheritance. He created a system called the seigneurate - the center of which was in Krakow with the power of the great Krakow prince-princeps. He had sole power over all territories, Pomerania and dealt with foreign policy, military and church issues. This led to feudal strife for a period of 200 years.
True, there was one positive moment in the history of Poland, which is associated with the reign of Boleslav Krivoust. After the Second World War, it was its territorial borders that were taken as the basis as the borders for the restoration of modern Poland.
The second half of the 12th century for Poland, as well as for Kievan Rus and Germany, became a turning point. These states collapsed, and their territories came under the rule of vassals, who, together with the church, minimized his power, and then began not to recognize it at all. This led to greater independence for the once controlled areas. Poland began to look more and more like a feudal country. Power was concentrated in the hands not of the prince, but of the large landowner. Villages were populated and new systems of land cultivation and harvesting were actively introduced. A three-field system was introduced, and they began to use a plow and a water mill. The reduction of princely taxes and the development of market relations led to the fact that villagers and artisans received the right to dispose of their goods and money. This significantly increased the peasant’s standard of living, and the landowner received better quality work. Everyone benefited from this. Decentralization of power made it possible for large landowners to establish vibrant work, and then trade in goods and services. Constant internecine wars between princes who forgot to deal with state affairs only contributed to this. And soon Poland actively began to develop as a feudal-industrial state.
The 13th century in the history of Poland was troubled and joyless. Poland was attacked from the east by the Mongol-Tatars, and the Lithuanians and Prussians attacked from the north. The princes made attempts to defend themselves from the Prussians and convert the pagans to Christianity, but they were not crowned with success. In despair, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226. called for help from the Teutonic Order. He gave them the Chelma land, although the order did not stop there. The crusaders had material and military means at their disposal, and also knew how to build fortifications protective structures. This made it possible to conquer part of the Baltic lands and establish there, small state– East Prussia. It was settled by immigrants from Germany. This new country limited Poland's access to the Baltic Sea and actively threatened the integrity of Polish territory. So the saving Teutonic Order soon became the unspoken enemy of Poland.
In addition to the Prussians, Lithuanians and Crusaders, an even bigger problem arose in Poland in the 40s - the Mongol invasion. Which has already managed to conquer Rus'. They burst into the territory of Lesser Poland and, like a tsunami, swept away everything in their path. In 1241 In April, a battle took place on the territory of Silesia, near Legnica, between the knights under the leadership of Henry the Pious and the Mongols. Prince Mieszko, knights from Greater Poland, from the orders: Teutonic, Johannite, Templar, came to support him. 7-8 thousand warriors gathered in the sum. But the Mongols had more coordinated tactics, more weapons and used gas, which was intoxicating. This led to the defeat of the Polish army. No one knows whether it was the resistance or the fortitude of the Poles, but the Mongols left the country and never attacked again en masse. Only in 1259 and in 1287 repeated their attempt, which was more like an attack for the purpose of robbery than conquest.
After the victory over the conquerors, the history of Poland took its natural course. Poland recognized that supreme power was concentrated in the hands of the Pope and paid him tribute annually. The Pope had great power in resolving all internal and external issues in Poland, which preserved its integrity and unity, and also developed the culture of the country. The foreign policy of all the princes, although ambitiously aimed at expanding their territories, was not realized in practice. Internal expansion reached a great level, when each prince wanted to colonize as many territories as possible within the country itself. The feudal division of society was reinforced by status inequality. The number of serfs increased. The number of emigrants from other countries, for example Germans and Flemings, also increased, who brought their innovations to legal and other management systems. Such colonists, in turn, received land, money and incredible freedom of action to develop the economy. This attracted more and more immigrants to the territory of Poland, the population density increased, and the quality of labor increased. Which led to the emergence of German cities in Silesia that were governed by the Magdeburg Law, or as it was also called the Chelmin Law. The first such city was Środa Śląska. Rather, such legal management spread to the entire territory of Poland and almost all spheres of life of the population.
A new stage in the history of Poland began in 1296, when Władysław Lokietok (1306-1333) from Kuyavia began the path to reunite all lands together with Polish knights and some burghers. He achieved success and in a short time united Lesser and Greater Poland and the Promorye. But in 1300, Vladislav fled from Poland due to the fact that the Czech prince Wenceslas II became king and he did not want to enter into an unequal battle with him. After Vlaclav's death, Vladislav returned to his native country and began to gather the lands back together. In 1305 he regained power in Kuyavia, Sieradz, Sandomierz and Łęczyce. And a year later in Krakow. Suppressed a number of uprisings in 1310 and 1311. in Poznan and Krakow. In 1314 it united with the Principality of Greater Poland. In 1320 he was crowned and returned royal power to the territory of fragmented Poland. Despite his nickname Loketok, which Wladislav received due to his short stature, he became the first ruler who began the path to restoring the Polish state.
His father's work was continued by his son Casimir III the Great (1333-1370). His rise to power is considered to be the beginning of Poland's golden era. The country came to him in a very deplorable state. The Czech king Jan of Luxembourg wanted to capture Lesser Poland, Greater Poland was terrorized by the crusaders. In order to preserve the shaky peace, Casimir signed a non-aggression treaty with the Czech Republic in 1335, while giving him the territory of Silesia. In 1338, Casimir, with the help of the Hungarian king, who was also his brother-in-law, captured the city of Lviv and united Galician Rus' with his country through a union. The history of Poland in 1343 experienced the first peace agreement - the so-called “eternal peace”, which was signed with the Teutonic Order. The knights returned the territories of Kuyavia and Dobrzynsk to Poland. In 1345 Casimir decided to return Silesia. This led to the start of the Polish-Czech War. The battles for Poland were not very successful, and Casimir was forced on November 22, 1348. sign a peace treaty between Poland and Charles I. The lands of Silesia remained assigned to the Czech Republic. In 1366, Poland captured the Belsk, Kholm, Volodymyr-Volyn lands and Podolia. Within the country, Casimir also carried out many reforms according to Western models: in management, the legal system, and the financial system. In 1347 he issued a set of laws called the Wislica Statutes. He eased the duties of the Christians. Sheltered Jews who fled Europe. In 1364, in the city of Krakow, he opened the first university in Poland. Casimir the Great was the last ruler of the Piast dynasty, and through his efforts he revived Poland, making it a large and strong European state.
Despite the fact that he married 4 times, not a single wife gave Casimir a son and his nephew Louis I the Great (1370-1382) became the heir to the Polish throne. He was one of the most just and influential rulers in all of Europe. During his reign, the Polish gentry in 1374. received a lead, which was called Koshitsky. According to it, the nobles could not pay most of all taxes, but for this, they promised to give the throne to Louis’s daughter.
And so it happened, the daughter of Louis Jadwiga was given as a wife to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiel, which opened a new page in the history of Poland. Jagiello (1386-1434) became the ruler of two states. In Poland he was known as Vladislav II. He began the path to unify the Principality of Lithuania with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1386 In the city of Krevo, the so-called Krevo Pact was signed, according to which Lithuania was included in Poland, which made it the largest country of the 15th century. According to this pact, Lithuania accepted Christianity, providing itself with assistance from the Catholic Church and the Pope. The prerequisites for such a union for Lithuania were a tangible threat from the Order of the Teutonic Knights, the Tatar navala and the Moscow principality. Poland, in turn, wanted to protect itself from the oppression of Hungary, which began to lay claim to the lands of Galician Rus. Both the Polish gentry and the Lithuanian boyars supported the union as an opportunity to gain a foothold in new territories and gain new markets. The unification, however, did not go very smoothly. Lithuania was a state in which power lay in the hands of the prince and feudal lord. Many, namely Jogaila’s brother, Vytautas, could not come to terms with the fact that after the union the prince’s rights and freedoms would decrease. And in 1389 Vitov enlisted the support of the Teutonic Order and attacked Lithuania. The fighting continued from 1390-1395. although already in 1392 Vytautas reconciled with his brother and became the ruler of Lithuania, and Jagiello ruled in Poland.
Wayward behavior and constant attacks from the Teutonic Order led to the fact that in 1410. Lithuania, Poland, Rus' and the Czech Republic united and held a large-scale battle at Gryuwald, where they defeated the knights and got rid of their oppression for some time.
In 1413 In the city of Gorodlya, all issues regarding the unification of the state were clarified. The Union of Gorodel decided that the Lithuanian prince was appointed by the Polish king with the participation of the Lithuanian council, the two rulers had to hold joint meetings with the participation of the lords, the post of voivode and castellans became a novelty in Lithuania. Following this union, the Principality of Lithuania embarked on the path of development and recognition, and turned into a strong and independent state.
After the union, Casimir Jagiellonczyk (1447-1492) ascended the throne in the Principality of Lithuania, and his brother Vladislav took the throne in Poland. In 1444 King Vladislav died in battle, and power passed into the hands of Casimir. This renewed the personal union and for a long time made the Jagiellonian dynasty heirs to the throne, both in Lithuania and Poland. Casimir wanted to reduce the power of the nobles, as well as the church. But he failed, and he was forced to come to terms with their right to vote during the Diet. In 1454 Casimir provided representatives of the nobility with the so-called Neshava Statutes, which resembled the Magna Carta in their content. In 1466 A joyful and very expected event occurred - the end of the 13th war with the Teutonic Order came. The Polish state won. October 19, 1466 A peace treaty was signed in Toruń. After him, Poland regained territories such as Pomerania and Gdansk, and the order itself was recognized as a vassal of the country.
In the 16th century, the history of Poland experienced its dawn. It has become one of the largest states in all of Eastern Europe, with a rich culture, economy and constant development. Polish became the official language and replaced Latin. The concept of law as power and freedom for the population took root.
With the death of Jan Olbracht (1492-1501), a struggle began between the state and the dynasty that was in power. The Jagiellonian family faced the displeasure of the wealthy population - the gentry, who refused to give duties for their benefit. There was also a threat of expansion from the Habsburgs and the Principality of Moscow. In 1499 The Gorodel Union was resumed, for which the king was elected at elective congresses of the gentry, although the applicants were only from the ruling dynasty, thus the gentry received their spoonful of honey. In 1501, the Lithuanian prince Alexander, for a place on the Polish throne, issued the so-called Melnitsky privelei. Behind him, power was in the hands of parliament, and the king only had the function of chairman. Parliament could impose a veto - a ban on the ideas of the monarch, and also make decisions on all issues of the state without the participation of the king. Parliament became two chambers - the first chamber was the Sejm, with the minor nobility, the second was the Senate, with the aristocracy and clergy. Parliament controlled all expenses of the monarch and issued sanctions for the receipt of funds. The higher ranks of the population demanded even more concessions and privileges. As a result of such reforms, actual power was concentrated in the hands of magnates.
Sigismund I (1506-1548) the Old and his son Sigismund Augustus (1548-1572) put all their efforts into reconciling the conflicting parties and meeting the needs of these versts of the population. It was customary to place the king, senate and ambassadors on equal terms. This somewhat calmed the growing protests within the country. In 1525 The master of the Teutonic Knights, whose name was Albrecht of Brandenburg, was initiated into Lutheranism. Sigismund the Old gave him possession of the Duchy of Prussia, although he remained the overlord of these places. This unification, two centuries later, turned these territories into a strong empire.
In 1543, another outstanding event occurred in the history of Poland. Nicolaus Copernicus stated, proved and even published a book that the earth is not the center of the universe and rotates around its axis. In medieval times, the statement is shocking and risky. But later, it was confirmed.
During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548-1572). Poland flourished and became one of the powerful powers in Europe. He turned his hometown of Krakow into a cultural center. Poetry, science, architecture, and art were revived there. It was there that the Reformation began. On November 28, 1561, an agreement was signed, under which Livonia came under the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian country. Russian feudal lords received the same rights as Catholic Poles. In 1564 allowed the Jesuits to carry out their activities. In 1569, the so-called Union of Lublin was signed, after which Poland and Lithuania united into one state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This marked the beginning of a new era. The king is one person for two states and he was elected by the ruling aristocracy, laws were adopted by parliament, and a single currency was introduced. For a long time, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became one of the most big countries, second only to Russia. This was the first step towards gentry democracy. The legal and economic system was strengthened. The safety of citizens was ensured. The gentry received the green light in all their endeavors, as long as they benefited the state. For a long time, this state of affairs suited everyone, both the population and the monarchs.
Sigismund Augustus died without leaving an heir, which led to the fact that kings began to be elected. 1573 Henry of Valois was chosen. His reign lasted a year, but in such a short time he accepted the so-called “free election”, according to which the gentry chooses the king. A pact of agreement was also adopted - an oath for the king. The king could not even appoint an heir, declare war, or increase taxes. All these issues had to be agreed upon by parliament. Even the king's wife was selected by the senate. If the king behaved inappropriately, the people could disobey him. Thus, the king remained only for the title, and the country turned from a monarchy into a parliamentary republic. Having done business, Henry calmly left France, where he sat on the throne after the death of his brother.
After this, parliament was unable to appoint a new monarch for a long time. In 1575, having married a princess from the Jagiellonian family to the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, they turned him into a ruler (1575-1586). He made a number of good reforms: he strengthened himself in Gdansk, Livonia and freed the Baltic states from the attacks of Ivan the Terrible. Received support from the registered Cossacks
(Sigismund Augustus was the first to apply such a term to fugitive peasants from Ukraine when he took them into military service) in the fight against the Ottoman army. He singled out the Jews, giving them privileges and allowing them to have a parliament within the community. In 1579 opened a university in Vilnius, which became the center of European and Catholic culture. Foreign policy was aimed at strengthening its positions on the part of Muscovy, Sweden and Hungary. Stefan Batory became the monarch who began to restore the country to its former glory.
Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) received the throne, but did not receive support from either the gentry or the population. They simply didn't like him. Since 1592 Sigismund's fixed idea was to spread and strengthen Catholicism. In the same year he was crowned King of Sweden. He did not exchange Poland for Lutheran Sweden and, due to his failure to appear in the country and not to conduct political affairs, he was overthrown from the Swedish throne in 1599. Attempts to regain the throne brought Poland into a long and unequal war with such a powerful enemy. The first step towards transferring Orthodox subjects to complete submission to the Pope was the Berestey Union of 1596. which was initiated by the king. The Uniate Church got its start - with Orthodox rituals, but with subordination to the Pope. In 1597 he moved the capital of Poland from the city of kings of Krakow to the center of the country - Warsaw. Sigismund wanted to return an absolute monarchy to Poland, limit all the rights of parliament, and slowed down the development of voting. In 1605 ordered that the veto power of parliament be destroyed. The reaction was not long in coming. And a citizen uprising broke out in 1606. The Rokosh uprising ended in 1607. July 6. Although Sigismund suppressed the uprising, his reforms were never accepted. Sigismund also brought the country into a state of war with Muscovy and Moldavia. In 1610 The Polish army occupies Moscow, winning the Battle of Klushino. Sigismund places his son Vladislav on the throne. Although they could not retain power. The people rebelled and overthrew the Polish ruler. In general, Sigismund's reign brought more harm and destruction to the country than development.
Sigismund's son Vladislav IV (1632-1648) became the ruler of a country that was weakened by the war with Muscovy and Turkey. Ukrainian Cossacks attacked its territory. Enraged by the situation in the country, the gentry demanded even more liberties and also refused to pay income tax. The situation in the country was bleak.
The situation did not improve under the leadership of Jan Casimir (1648-1668). The Cossacks continued to torment the territory. The Swedes did not refuse such pleasure either. In 1655 A Swedish king named Charles X conquered the cities of Krakow and Warsaw. The cities passed from one army to another several times, the result was their total destruction and death of the population. Poland was tormented by constant battles, the king fled to Silesia. In 1657 Poland lost Prussia. In 1660 The long-awaited truce between the rulers of Poland and Sweden was signed in Oliwa. But Poland continued the exhausting war with Muscovy, which led to the loss of Kyiv and the eastern banks of the Dnieper in 1667. There were uprisings within the country, tycoons, guided only by their own interests, destroyed the state. In 1652 it got to the point that the so-called “liberium veto” was used for personal interests. Any deputy could vote to reject a law he did not like. Chaos began in the country, and Jan Casimir could not stand it and abdicated the throne in 1668.
Mikhail Vishnevetsky (1669-1673) also did not improve life in the country, and also lost Podolia, giving it to the Turks.
After such a reign, Jan III Sobieski (1674-1696) ascended the throne. He began to regain territories that had been lost during numerous military operations. In 1674 went on a campaign with the Cossacks to liberate Podolia. In August 1675 defeated a large Turkish-Tatar army near the city of Lvov. France, as protector of Poland, insisted on a peace treaty between Poland and Turkey in 1676. In October of that year, the so-called Zhuravino peace was signed, after which Turkey gave 2/3 of the territory that belonged to Ukraine to Poland, and the remaining territory became at the disposal of the Cossacks. February 2, 1676 Sobieski was crowned and given the name Jan III. Despite the support of the French, Jan Sobieski wanted to get rid of Turkish oppression and on March 31, 1683, he entered into an alliance with Austria. This event led to the attack of the troops of Sultan Mehmed IV on Austria. The army of Kara-Mustafa Koprulu captured Vienna. On September 12 of the same year, Jan Sobieski with his army and the army of the Austrians near Vienna defeated enemy troops, stopping the Ottoman Empire from advancing into Europe. But the looming threat from the Turks forced Jan Sobieski in 1686. sign an agreement called “Eternal Peace” with Russia. Russia received Left Bank Ukraine at its disposal and joined the coalition against the Ottoman Empire. Domestic policies aimed at restoring hereditary power were unsuccessful. And the act of the queen, who offered to occupy various government positions for money, completely shook the power of the ruler.
For the next 70 years, the Polish throne was occupied by various foreigners. Ruler of Saxony – Augustus II (1697-1704, 1709-1733). He enlisted the support of Moscow Prince Peter I. He managed to return Podolia and Volyn. In 1699 concluded the so-called Charles Peace with the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. He fought, but without results, with the kingdom of Sweden. And in 1704 left the throne at the insistence of Charles XII, who gave power to Stanislav Leshchinsky.
The decisive battle for Augustus was the battle near Poltava in 1709, in which Peter I defeated the Swedish troops, and he returned to the throne again. 1721 brought the final victory of Poland and Russia over Sweden, ending the Northern War. This did not bring anything positive for Poland, because it lost its independence. At the same time, it became part of the Russian Empire.
His son Augustus III (1734-1763) became a doll in the hands of Rossi. The local population, under the leadership of Prince Czartoryski, wanted to cancel the so-called “liberium veto” and return Poland to its former greatness. But the coalition led by the Pototskys did their best to prevent this. And 1764 Catherine II helped Stanisław August Poniatkowski (1764-1795) ascend the throne. He was destined to become the last king of Poland. He made a number of progressive changes in the monetary and legislative system, replaced cavalry with infantry in the army and introduced new types of weapons. I wanted to cancel the liberium veto. In 1765 introduced such an award as the Order of St. Stanislaus. The gentry, dissatisfied with such changes, in 1767-1678. held the Repninsky Sejm, at which they decided that all freedoms and privileges remained with the gentry, and that Orthodox citizens and Protestants had the same state rights as Catholics. Conservatives did not miss the chance to create their own union, called the Bar Conference. Such events sparked a civil war, and interference in its course by neighboring countries became undeniable.
The result of this situation was the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which took place on July 25, 1772. Austria took the territory of Lesser Poland. Russia - captured Livonia, the Belarusian cities of Polotsk, Vitebsk and some part of the Minsk Voivodeship. Prussia received the so-called Greater Poland and Gdansk. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. In 1773 destroyed the Jesuit Order. All internal affairs were handled by the ambassador, who sat in the capital Warsaw, and throughout Poland since 1780. permanent troops from Russia were stationed.
May 3, 1791 The winners created a set of laws - the Constitution of Poland. Poland turned into a hereditary monarchy. All executive power belonged to ministers and parliament. They are elected once every 2 years. The “Liberium veto” is abolished by the constitution. Judicial and administrative autonomy was given to cities. A regular army was organized. The first prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were accepted. The history of Poland received worldwide recognition, because the constitution became the first written constitution in Europe, and the second in the whole world.
Such reforms did not suit the magnates who created the Targowitz Confederation. They asked for even more support from Russian and Prussian troops, and the result of such help was the subsequent division of the state. January 23, 1793 became the day of the next section. Territories such as the city of Gdansk, Torun, the territories of Greater Poland, and Mazovia were attached to Prussia. The Russian Empire took over a huge part of the territories that belonged to Lithuania and Belarus, Volyn and Podolia. Poland was torn apart and ceased to be considered a state.
This turn in the history of Poland could not happen without protests and uprisings. March 12, 1794 Tadeusz Kosciuszko became the leader of a massive popular uprising against the usurpers. The motto was the revival of Polish independence and the return of lost lands. On this day, Polish soldiers went to Krakow. And already on March 24, the city was liberated. On April 4, peasants near Racławice defeated the tsarist troops. On April 17-18, Warsaw was liberated. This was done by artisans under the leadership of J. Kilinki. The same detachment liberated Vilna on April 22-23. The taste of victory led the rebels to demand decisive action and the continuation of the revolution. On May 7, Kosciuszko created the Polanets station wagon, but the peasants did not like it. A series of defeats in battles, troops from Austria and the offensive of Russian troops on August 11 under the leadership of the famous general A.V. Suvorov forced the rebels to leave Vilna and other cities. On November 6, Warsaw surrendered. The end of November became sad, the tsarist troops suppressed the uprising.
In 1795 the so-called third partition of Poland occurred. Poland was erased from the world map.
The further history of Poland was no less heroic, but also sad. The Poles did not want to put up with the absence of their country and did not give up trying to return Poland to its former power. They acted independently in uprisings, or were part of the troops of countries that fought against the occupiers. In 1807 When Napoleon defeated Prussia, Polish troops played an important role in this victory. Napoleon gained power over the captured territories of Poland during the 2nd partition and created there the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815). In 1809 he annexed to this principality the lands lost after the 3rd partition. Such a small Poland delighted the Poles and gave them hope for complete liberation.
In 1815 when Napoleon was defeated, the so-called Congress of Vienna was assembled and territorial changes took place. Krakow became autonomous with a protectorate (1815-1848). The joy of the people, as it became, the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw lost its western lands, which were taken over by Prussia. She turned them into her own Duchy of Poznań (1815-1846); The eastern part of the country received the status of a monarchy - under the name “Kingdom of Poland”, and went to Russia.
In November 1830 There was an unsuccessful uprising of the Polish population against the Russian Empire. The same fate awaited opponents of the government in 1846 and 1848. In 1863 The January uprising broke out, but for two years it did not achieve success. There was an active Russification of the Poles. In 1905-1917 Poles took part in 4 Russian Dumas, while actively seeking national autonomy for Poland.
In 1914 the world was drowned in the fires and devastation of the First World War. Poland received, as well as the hope of gaining independence, because the dominant countries fought among themselves, and many problems. The Poles had to fight for the country to which the territory belonged; Poland became a springboard for military operations; The war exacerbated an already tense situation. Society was divided into two camps. Roman Dmovsky (1864-1939) and his associates believed that Germany was creating all the problems and fiercely supported cooperation with the Entente. They wanted to unite all the once Polish lands into autonomy under the protection of Russia. Representatives of the Polish Socialist Party acted more radically; their main desire was the defeat of Russia. Liberation from Russian oppression was the main condition for independence. The party insisted on creating independent armed forces. Józef Piłsudski created and led garrisons, people's army and took the side of Austria-Hungary in the battle.
Russian ruler Nicholas I, in his 1914 declaration of August 14, promised to accept the autonomy of Poland with all its lands under the protection of the Russian Empire. Germany and Austria-Hungary, in turn, two years later, on November 5, announced a manifesto, which stated that the Kingdom of Poland would be created in territories that belonged to Russia. In the month of August 1917 in France they created the so-called Polish National Committee, whose leaders were Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski. Józef Haller was called to become commander-in-chief of the army. The history of Poland received an impetus for development on January 8, 1918. Wilson, the US President, insisted on the restoration of Poland. He called for Poland to regain its position and become an independent country with open access to the Baltic Sea. At the beginning of June she was recognized as a supporter of the Entente. October 6, 1918 Taking advantage of the confusion in government structures, the Polish Regency Council made a declaration of independence. November 11, 1918 power passed to Marshal Pilsudski. The country received the long-awaited freedom, but faced certain difficulties: lack of borders, national currency, government structures, devastation and fatigue of the people. But the desire to develop gave an unreal impetus to action. And January 17, 1919 At the fateful Versailles Conference, the territorial borders of Poland were determined: Pomerania was attached to its territory, access to the sea was opened, Gdansk received the status of a free city. July 28, 1920 Big city Cieszyn and its suburbs were divided between two countries: Poland and Czechoslovakia. February 10, 1920 Vilna joined.
On April 21, 1920, Pilsudski teamed up with the Ukrainian Petlyura and dragged Poland into the war with the Bolsheviks. The result was an attack by the Bolshevik army on Warsaw, but they were defeated.
Poland's foreign policy was aimed at a policy of not joining any country or union. January 25, 1932 signed a bilateral non-aggression treaty with the USSR. January 26, 1934 a similar pact was signed with Germany. This idyll did not last long. Germany demanded that the city, which was free, Gdansk, be given over to them and given the opportunity to build highways and a railway across the Polish border.
April 28, 1939 Germany broke the non-aggression pact, and on August 25 a German battleship landed on the territory of Gdansk. Hitler explained his actions with the salvation of the German people, who were under the yoke of the Polish authorities. They also staged a cruel provocation. On August 31, German soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms burst into the radio station studio in the city of Gleiwitz, accompanied by gunfire, and read a Polish text that called for war with Germany. This message was broadcast on all radio stations in Germany. And September 1, 1939 at 4 hours 45 minutes, armed German troops began shelling Polish buildings, aviation destroyed everything from the air, and the infantry sent its forces to Warsaw. Germany began its "lightning war". 62 infantry divisions and 2 air fleets were supposed to quickly break through and destroy the Polish defenses. The Polish command also had a secret plan called "West" in case of military conflict. Behind this plan, the army had to prevent the enemy from reaching vital areas, carry out active mobilization and, having received support from Western countries, go on a counteroffensive. The Polish army was significantly inferior to the German one. 4 days were enough for the Germans to travel 100 km into the interior of the country. Within a week, cities such as Krakow, Kielce and Lodz were occupied. On the night of September 11, German tanks entered the suburbs of Warsaw. On September 16, the cities were captured: Bialystok, Brest-Litovsk, Przemysl, Sambir and Lvov. Polish troops, with the support of the population, waged a guerrilla war. On September 9, the Poznan garrison defeated the enemy over Bzura, and the Hel Peninsula did not surrender until October 20. Following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on September 17, 1939. Like clockwork, the powerful Red Army entered the territory of western Ukraine and Belarus. On September 22, she easily entered Lviv.
On September 28, Ribbentrop signed an agreement in Moscow, according to which the border between Germany and the USSR was designated by the Curzon Line. During the 36 days of the war, Poland was divided for the fourth time, between two totalitarian states.
The war brought a lot of grief and destruction to the country. Everyone suffered, regardless of their former power or wealth. The Jews suffered the most in this war. Poland was no exception in this regard. The Holocaust on its territory took on a horrific character. There were justified concentration camps for prisoners. They were not just killed there, they were mocked there and incredible experiments were carried out. Auschwitz is considered the largest death camp, but there were many smaller ones scattered throughout the country, and sometimes several in each city. People were scared and doomed.
On April 19, 1943, the inhabitants of the Warsaw ghetto could not stand it and began an uprising on the night of Passover. Out of 400 thousand. At that time, only 50-70 thousand Jews remained alive in the ghetto. of people. When the police entered the ghetto for a new batch of victims, the Jews opened fire on them. Methodically, in the following weeks, the SS pens exterminated the inhabitants. The ghetto was set on fire and razed to the ground. In May the Great Synagogue was blown up. The Germans declared the end of the uprising on May 16, 1943, although outbreaks of fighting continued until June 1943.
Another large-scale uprising occurred on August 1, 1944. in Warsaw, as part of Operation Storm. The main goal of the uprising was to oust the German army from the city and show independence to the Soviet authorities. The beginning was rosy, the army was able to take control of most of the city. The Soviet army, for various reasons, stopped its offensive. September 14, 1944 The first Polish army strengthened its positions on the eastern bank of the Vistula and helped the rebels move to the western bank. The attempt was not successful and only 1200 people were able to do it. Winston Churchill demanded radical action from Stalin to help the uprising, but this was unsuccessful, and the Royal Air Force carried out 200 sorties and dropped aid and military ammunition directly from the plane. But even this could not turn the Warsaw Uprising into a success and it was soon brutally suppressed. The number of victims is not known for certain, but they say that there were 16,000 killed and 6,000 wounded, and this is only during the fighting. In the operations carried out by the Germans to clear out the rioters, about 150-200,000 civilians died. 85% of the entire city was destroyed.
For another year, the history of Poland experienced murder and destruction, and constant battles and hostilities lasted for a year. The Polish army took part in all battles against the Nazis. She was a participant in various missions.
January 17, 1945 the capital was liberated from the Nazis. Germany announced its surrender.
The First Polish Army was the second largest after the Soviet one, which took part in the war, and in particular in the storming of Berlin.
May 2, 1945 During the battles for Berlin, Polish troops planted the white and red flag of victory on the Prussian Victory Column and on the Brandenburg Gate. On this day modern history Poland celebrates National Flag Day.
On February 4-11, 1945, at the so-called Yalta Conference, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to annex the territories of Poland located in the east to the USSR. Poland compensates for the lost territories by receiving what were once German lands.
On July 5, 1945, the Polish Lublin government was temporarily recognized as legitimate. Non-communists could also apply for a place in management. In August, a decision was made to annex to Poland the territories that belonged to the eastern parts of Prussia and Germany. 15% of the 10 billion reparations that Germany paid were supposed to go to Poland. Post-war Poland became communist. Regular troops of the Red Army began hunting for members of various party forces. Bolesława Bieruta, a communist representative, became president. An active process of Stalinization began. In September 19948 General Secretary Wladyslaw Gomulka was removed from office due to his nationalist deviations. In the process of merging two - the Polish Workers' and Polish Socialist parties - in 1948, a new Polish United Workers' Party appeared. In 1949, the so-called United Peasant Party was approved. Poland received membership in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance of the USSR. June 7, 1950 The GDR and Poland signed an agreement, beyond which the Polish border in the west was located along the Oder-Neisse - the distribution line. To create a military coalition against the main enemy of the USSR - NATO, in 1955. The Warsaw Pact was signed. The coalition included countries such as the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and for some time Albania.
Dissatisfaction with Stalin's policies led to mass riots in 1956. in Poznan. 50tis. people, workers and students, opposed the prevailing Soviet oppression. In October of this year, the nationalist-minded Gomulka became the general secretary of the PUWP. He reveals all the abuses of power within the Communist Party, reveals the truth about Stalin and his policies. Removes from the posts of the chairman of the Sejm, also Rokossovsky and many other officers from the union. Through his actions he won a certain neutrality from the USSR. The lands were returned to the peasants, freedom of speech appeared, trade and industry were given the green light for all undertakings, workers could intervene in the management of enterprises, warm relations with the church were restored, and the production of missing goods was established. The USA gave its economic assistance.
In the 1960s, the restored Soviet power reversed almost all of Gomulk's reforms. Pressure on the country increased again: peasant partnerships, censorship and anti-religious policies returned.
In 1967, the famous Rolling Stones give a concert in the Palace of Culture in Warsaw.
And in March 1968 Student anti-Soviet demonstrations swept across the country. The result was arrests and emigrations. In the same year, the country's leadership refused to support the reforms of the so-called “Prague Spring”. In August, under pressure from the USSR, Polish troops took part in the occupation of Czechoslovakia.
December 1970 was marked by mass demonstrations in the cities of Gdansk, Gdynia and Szczecin. People opposed the increase in prices for various goods, and mainly for food. It all ended sadly. About 70 workers were killed and about 1,000 were injured. Constant persecution and persecution of the “dissatisfied” led to the creation in 1798. The Committee for Public Defense, which was the first stage for creating an opposition.
October 16, 1978 The new Pope is not an Italian, but the Bishop of Krakow - Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II). He directs his work towards bringing the church closer to people.
In July 1980, food prices soared again. A wave of strikes swept the country. The working class protested in Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin. This movement was also supported by miners in Silesia. The strikers formed committees and soon they developed 22 demands. They were of an economic and political nature. People demanded lower prices, higher wages, the creation of trade unions, lower levels of censorship, and the right to rallies and strikes. The management accepted almost all the demands. This led to the fact that workers began en masse to join trade union associations independent from the state, which soon turned into the Solidarity federation. Its leader was Lech Walesa. The main demand of the workers was permission to manage enterprises themselves, appoint management and select personnel. In September, Solidarity called on workers throughout Eastern Europe to form free trade unions. In December, workers demanded a referendum to decide the power of the Soviet Communist Party in Poland. This statement had an immediate reaction.
On December 13, 1981, Jaruzelski declared martial law in the country and arrested all Solidarity leaders. Strikes broke out and were quickly suppressed.
In 1982 Trade unions were established under national leadership.
In July 1983 Pope John Paul II arrived in the country, which led to the lifting of the protracted martial law. Pressure from international society granted amnesty to prisoners in 1984.
During 1980-1987. The economic situation in Poland was deteriorating. Workers also went hungry in the summer of 1988. Strikes began in factories and mines. The government called on Solidarity leader Lech Walesa for help. These negotiations received the symbolic name of the “Round Table”. It was decided to hold free elections and legalize Solidarity.
June 4, 1989 elections were held. Solidarity took the lead, overtaking the Communist Party, and took all the leading positions in the government. Tadeusz Mazowiecki became the country's prime minister. A year later, Lech Walesa became president. His leadership lasted one term.
In 1991 The Cold War has officially ended. The Warsaw Pact was terminated. Beginning of 1992 pleased with the active growth of GNP, new market institutions were created. Poland began active economic development. In 1993 An opposition was formed - the Union of Democratic Left Forces.
At the next elections, Aleksander Kwasniewski, the head of the Social Democratic Party, ascended to the presidency. His government did not get off to an easy start. Members of parliament demanded an active policy to dismiss traitors to the country and those who had collaborated or worked for the union for a long time, and then Russia. They put forward a law on lustration, but it did not pass the number of votes. And in October 1998, Kwasniewski signed this law. Everyone who was in power had to frankly admit their ties with Russia. They were not fired from their positions, but this knowledge became public knowledge. If suddenly someone did not confess, and such evidence was found, then the official was prohibited from holding office for 10 years. 
In 1999 Poland has become an active member of the NATO alliance. In 2004 joined the European Union.
Elections 2005 brought victory to Lech Kaczynski.
In November 2007, Donald Tusk was elected prime minister. This government structure managed to maintain a stable political and economic situation. And even during the crisis of 2008. the Poles did not feel any big problems. In managing foreign policy, they chose neutrality and avoided conflicts with both the EU and Russia.
Plane crash in April 2010 took the lives of the president and representatives of the color of Polish society. This was a dark page in the history of Poland. People mourned a just leader, and the country plunged into mourning for a long time.
After the tragic incident, it was decided to hold early elections. The first round was on June 20 and the second on July 4, 2010. In the second round, Bronislaw Komorowski, a representative of the party called “Civic Platform”, won with 53% of the votes, overtaking L. Kaczynski’s brother, Jaroslaw Kaczynski.
Party "Civil Platform" October 9, 2011 won the parliamentary elections. The following parties also came to power: “Law and Justice” J. Kaczynski, “Palikot Movement” J. Palikot, PSL - Polish peasant party leader W. Pawlak and the Union of Left Democratic Forces. The ruling Civic Platform party has formed a coalition with the up-and-coming PSL. Donald Tusk was again chosen as Prime Minister.
In 2004 he was elected President of the European Council.
The history of Poland has passed a long and very difficult road to becoming an independent state. Today it is one of the developed and strong countries of the European Union. Harvested fields, high-quality roads, good salaries and prices, folk crafts, modern education, assistance to the disabled and low-income people, developed industry, economy, courts and governing bodies, and most importantly, a people who are so proud of their country and would not trade it for anything in the world. – make Poland the country we know, appreciate and respect. Poland has proven by its example that even from a completely destroyed, fragmented state it is possible to build a new competitive country.
Development of feudal relations. In the U.1-XII centuries. Significant progress was observed in agriculture in the Polish lands. The three-field system has spread everywhere. The area of cultivated land increased due to internal colonization. The peasants, escaping feudal oppression, developed new lands, where, however, they soon fell into the former feudal dependence.
In the 11th century In Poland, feudal relations were already established everywhere. Large secular and ecclesiastical land ownership grew as a result of the feudal lords seizing the lands of personally free communal peasants and through the distribution of princely lands. The middle feudal lords became in the 12th century. from conditional holders of estates to patrimonial owners - hereditary feudal owners.
The growth of large land ownership of feudal lords led to a sharp reduction in the number of free communal peasants. The number of registered peasants in the XII-XIII centuries. grew quickly. The main form of rent in the XI-XIII centuries. there was rent in kind. The farm of a dependent peasant was subject to quitrent in kind. The peasants had to bear numerous duties in favor of the prince. In an effort to increase income, the feudal lords increased the size of peasant duties, which met fierce resistance from the peasants. Feudal immunity expanded. Charters of immunity freed magnates from bearing all or part of the duties in favor of the prince and transferred judicial rights over the population into the hands of the feudal lords. Only important criminal offenses were subject to the jurisdiction of the princely court.
The growth of cities. In the XII-XIII centuries. Cities developed rapidly in Poland, which were already significant centers of crafts and trade at that time. The population of cities increased due to runaway peasants. Urban crafts developed. Technical techniques were improved in the pottery, jewelry, woodworking, foundry and metalworking industries of handicraft production. Based on the growth of specialization, new branches of craft arose. Especially great successes in the 13th century. in Poland the production of bitch has reached. Internal trade grew, exchange between cities and rural areas, and between regions of the country as a whole intensified. Money circulation developed. In foreign trade, connections with Russia, the Czech Republic, and Germany played an important role. Transit trade through Krakow and Wroclaw occupied a significant place. Polish cities in the XI-XII centuries. were dependent on the prince and paid him feudal rent and trade duties (myto). In the 13th century many Polish cities received city law modeled on German law (adapted to Polish conditions). Princes, secular and spiritual feudal lords, trying to increase their income, began to found cities on their lands, granting their population city rights and significant trade privileges.
German colonization and its significance. In order to increase their income, the feudal lords patronized the broad peasant colonization of the country. Significant benefits were provided to migrant peasants. From the 12th century princes and feudal lords began to encourage German rural and urban colonization, which at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. was especially significant in Silesia and Pomerania. It spread to a lesser extent in Greater and Lesser Poland. German peasant settlers enjoyed special “German rights” in Poland.
Landowners began to transfer Polish peasants to “German law.” At the same time, a uniform regulated order was introduced in money and in kind. Tithes in favor of the church were also regulated. New forms of feudal exploitation, especially money rent, contributed to the rise of productive forces and the growth of cities. German colonization in cities led to the fact that in a number of large centers of Silesia, Greater and Lesser Poland, the top of the urban population - the patriciate - became predominantly German.
The disintegration of Poland into appanages. Based on an alliance with Kievan Rus, Casimir I (1034-1058) began the struggle for the reunification of Polish lands. He managed to subjugate Mazovia and return Silesia. Boleslav II the Bold (1058-1079) sought to continue Casimir's policy. Bolesław II's foreign policy was aimed at achieving Polish independence from the German Empire. In 1076 he was proclaimed king of Poland. But Boleslav II was unable to suppress the speeches of the strengthened secular and spiritual nobility, which was not interested in maintaining a strong central power, which was supported by the Czech Republic and the German Empire. He was forced to flee to Hungary, where he died. Under Bolesław II's successor, Władysław I Herman (1079-1102), Poland began to disintegrate into appanages, entering a period of feudal fragmentation. True, at the beginning of the 12th century. Boleslaw III Wrymouth managed to temporarily restore the political unity of Poland, which was also due to the threat of enslavement hanging over the country from the German Empire.
The appanage system received legal formalization in the so-called Statute of Bolesław III (1138), according to which Poland was divided into appanages between his sons. The statute established. the principle of seniority: the eldest in the clan received supreme power with the title of Grand Duke. The capital was Krakow.
Feudal fragmentation was a natural phenomenon in the development of Poland. And at this time, productive forces continued to develop in agriculture and urban crafts. Economic ties between individual Polish lands grew and strengthened. The Polish people remembered the unity of their land, their ethnic and cultural community.
The period of feudal fragmentation brought difficult trials to the Poles. Politically fragmented Poland was unable to repel the aggression of the German feudal lords and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.
Poland's struggle against German feudal aggression in the XII-XIII centuries. Mongol-Tatar invasion. Strife over the princely throne between the sons of Bolesław III coincided with the increased aggression of German feudal lords into the lands of the Polabian-Baltic Slavs and led to dire political consequences for the Polish people.
In 1157, Margrave Albrecht the Bear captured Branibor, an important strategic point near the Polish borders. In the 70s XII century The political subjugation of the Polabian-Baltic Slavs by the German feudal lords was completed. On the occupied territory, the aggressive German principality of Brandenburg was formed, which began an attack on Polish lands. In 1181, Western Pomerania was forced to recognize vassal dependence on the German Empire.
The international position of the Polish lands deteriorated sharply after the appearance of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic States, which in 1226 was invited to Poland by the Masovian prince Conrad to fight the Prussians. The Teutonic Order, exterminating the Prussians with fire and sword, founded a strong state on their land, which was under the protection of the papal throne and the German Empire. In 1237, the Teutonic Order merged with the Order of the Swordsmen, which seized lands in the Eastern Baltic. The strengthening of the Teutonic Order and Brandenburg, whose possessions covered Polish lands on both sides, posed a great danger to Poland.
The situation became even worse as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Poland. A significant part of Poland was devastated and plundered (1241). In the battle of Lignetsa, the Mongol-Tatars completely defeated the troops of the Silesian-Polish feudal lords. Invasions of the Mongol-Tatars in 1259 and 1287. were accompanied by the same terrible devastation of Polish lands.
Taking advantage of the weakening of Poland due to the raids of the Mongol-Tatars and the growth of feudal fragmentation, the German feudal lords intensified their offensive on Polish lands.
Establishment of the state unity of Poland. The development of productive forces in agriculture and crafts, the strengthening of economic ties between individual regions of the country, and the growth of cities gradually created the economic prerequisites for the unification of Polish lands into a single state. The process of reunification of Polish lands was significantly accelerated by an external danger - the aggression of the Teutonic Order. The unification of the country was supported by the overwhelming majority of Polish society. The creation of a strong central government capable of limiting the arbitrariness of large feudal lords and organizing the protection of Polish borders met the interests of the Polish people.
At the end of the 13th century. The leading role in the struggle for the unification of the country belonged to the Greater Poland princes. In 1295, Przemyslaw II gradually extended his power to all of Poland and annexed Eastern Pomerania to his possessions. He was crowned with the Polish crown, but he had to cede the Krakow inheritance to the Czech king Wenceslas II. In 1296 Przemysław was killed. The struggle for the unification of the Polish lands was continued by the Brest-Kujaw prince Wladyslaw Loketok, who opposed Wenceslas II of Bohemia, who managed to subjugate both Lesser and Greater Poland to his power. After the death of Wenceslas II (1305) and his son Wenceslas III (1309), Loketok took possession of Krakow and Greater Poland. But East Pomerania was captured by the Teutonic Order (1309). In 1320, Wladyslaw Lokietok was crowned in Krakow with the crown of the Polish kings.
Foreign policy of Casimir III. Capture of Galician Rus'. The struggle for the unification of Polish lands in the middle of the 14th century, under King Casimir III (1333-1370), encountered stubborn resistance from the Teutonic Order and the Luxembourg dynasty. In 1335, through the mediation of Hungary, an agreement was concluded with the Luxemburgs in Visegrad, according to which they renounced their claims to the Polish throne, but retained Silesia. In 1343, the order was forced to make some territorial concessions to Poland. However, East Pomerania was not reunited with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1349-1352. Polish feudal lords managed to capture Galician Rus', and in 1366 - part of Volyn.
Socio-economic development of Poland in the 14th century. The political unification of the country contributed to the economic development of Polish lands. In the XIV century. peasants continued to intensively populate forested areas and clear new areas of land, hoping to free themselves from feudal exploitation. However, even in new places, newly settled peasants fell into feudal dependence on large landowners. In the XIV century. The category of personally free peasants almost completely disappeared. The feudal lords transferred the peasants to a uniform quitrent - chinsh, contributed in kind and money, which helped to increase the productivity of the peasants and intensify their economy. The income of the feudal lords grew. In some places, along with chinsh, corvée was also practiced on a small scale.
From the end of the 14th century. in connection with the development of commodity-money relations, property differentiation among foreigners has increased
Poland in the XIV-XV centuries.
these peasant peasants. Some of the Kmets turned into land-poor peasants - country dwellers who had only a small plot of land, a house and a vegetable garden. Increasing feudal exploitation caused energetic resistance from the peasantry, which was expressed primarily in escapes.
In the XIV century. Urban crafts developed in Poland. Silesia (especially the city of Wroclaw) was famous for its weavers. Krakow was a major center for cloth production. The guild organizations that emerged in the previous period became significantly stronger. Polish cities were the scene of fierce social and national struggle.
In the XIV century. Internal trade developed successfully, and trade between city and countryside increased. Fairs were of great importance for strengthening ties between Polish lands. Poland's foreign trade expanded significantly, with consumer goods occupying a significant place in it. Transit trade with the countries of Eastern and Western Europe played an important role. Of particular importance in the 14th century. acquired trade with the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast, primarily with Kafa (Feodosia). The coastal cities took an active part in trade along the Baltic Sea.
Economic growth contributed to the development of Polish culture. In the XIII-XIV centuries. city schools teaching in their native language appeared. Of great importance was the opening in 1364 of the university in Krakow, which became the second major scientific center in Central Europe.
The incompleteness of the process of unification of Polish lands. State unification of Polish lands in the 14th century. was incomplete: a sufficiently strong central government did not emerge; Mazovia, Silesia and Pomerania were not yet included in the Polish state (Mazovia, however, recognized the supremacy of the Polish king). Individual Polish lands (voivodships) retained their autonomy, local governments were in the hands of large feudal lords. The political and economic dominance of the possible owners was not undermined. The incompleteness of the process of unification of the Polish lands and the relative weakness of the central royal power had deep internal reasons. By the 14th century In Poland, the prerequisites for the creation of a centralized state have not yet matured. The process of forming a single all-Polish market was just beginning. The centralization of the Polish state was hampered by the position of the Polish landowners and the influential patriciates of the cities. The German patriciate of the largest Polish cities, associated mainly with international transit trade, opposed centralization. Therefore, Polish cities did not play a significant role in the unification of the country, unlike the cities of Russia and a number of Western European countries. The struggle for the unification of Polish lands was also hampered by the eastern policy of the Polish feudal lords, who sought to subjugate the Ukrainian lands. This scattered Poland's forces and weakened it in the face of German aggression. The unification of Polish lands, the development of the economy and culture of the Polish state in the 14th century. demanded legislative reform and codification of feudal law. However, no uniform legislation was drawn up for the entire country. In 1347, separate sets of laws were developed for Lesser Poland - the Wislica Statute and for Greater Poland - the Petrokovsky Statute. These statutes, based on customary law that previously existed in Poland, reflected the political and socio-economic changes that had taken place in the country (primarily the strengthening of the process of enslavement of peasants and the transition to a new form of feudal rent - chinshu). The situation of the peasants worsened significantly. The Wislica and Petrokovsky statutes limited the right of peasant transition.
Economic development of Poland in the 15th century. In the XIV-XV centuries. Handicraft production has achieved significant development. An indicator of the growth of productive forces was the widespread use of energy from falling water. The water wheel was used not only in mills, but also in craft production. In the 15th century in Poland the production of linen and cloth, metal products, and food products increased; The mining industry achieved significant success and salt was mined. The urban population grew. In the cities, the struggle between the German patricians and the bulk of the Polish citizens intensified, the process of Polonization of the German population was underway, and the Polish merchant class developed.
The growth of productive forces also occurred in agriculture. Plow cultivation of the land improved, and internal peasant colonization of the country expanded. The total volume of sown areas in the XIV-XV centuries. increased rapidly. In the 15th century Along with natural rent, money rent received great development, contributing to the growth of productivity of peasant labor. From the second half of the 15th century. Labor rent - corvée - began to grow rapidly, mainly on the estates of church feudal lords.
The development of money rent favored an increase in exchange between city and countryside and the growth of the domestic market. The farms of the peasant and feudal lord were more closely connected with the city market.
At the same time, foreign trade developed. For Poland, especially until the mid-15th century, transit trade between Western Europe and the East was of great importance, in which Polish cities located on the important trade route Wroclaw - Krakow - Lviv - Black Sea actively participated. From the second half of the 15th century. The importance of trade across the Baltic Sea increased sharply. The export of Polish ship timber to the West played an important role. Poland was actively involved in the pan-European market.
The growth of gentry privileges. The economic growth of cities did not lead, however, to a change in the balance of class and political forces in Poland at the end of the 14th-15th centuries. Politically and economically, the most influential part of the urban population was the patriciate, who profited from transit trade and had little interest in the development of the Polish economy itself. He easily established contact with feudal lords who were opponents of strengthening central power.
After the death of King Casimir III (1370), the political influence of magnates sharply increased in Poland. The magnates and gentry achieved a privilege in Kosice (1374), which freed the feudal lords from all duties except military service and a small tax of 2 groschen per dain of land. This laid the foundation for the legal formalization of the class privileges of Polish feudal lords and the limitation of royal power. The political dominance of the magnates caused discontent among the gentry. However, speaking against the magnates, the gentry did not seek to strengthen royal power, believing that the growing class organization was a reliable weapon for suppressing the class resistance of the peasants. The growth of political activity of the gentry was facilitated by the emergence of sejmiks - meetings of the gentry of individual voivodeships to resolve local affairs. At the beginning of the 15th century. sejmiks arose in Greater Poland in the second half of the 15th century. - and in Lesser Poland.
At the end of the 15th century. General diets of the entire kingdom began to be convened, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the embassy hut. The Senate consisted of magnates and dignitaries, the embassy hut - of the gentry - representatives (ambassadors) of local sejmiks. In Poland, a class monarchy began to take shape, which had a pronounced gentry character.
To achieve their political goals, the gentry created temporary unions - confederations, to which cities and the clergy sometimes joined. At first, these unions had an anti-magnate orientation, but usually they served as a weapon in the struggle for noble privileges.
The gentry was the main support of royal power, but its support was bought at the cost of more and more concessions from the monarchy. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk, in order to enlist the support of the gentry in the war with the order, was forced to issue the Niesza Statutes, which limited royal power. Without the consent of the gentry, the king did not have the right to issue new laws and start a war. To the detriment of the interests of the monarchy and cities, the gentry were allowed to create their own zemstvo courts. The statutes of 1454 were an important stage in the development of the Polish estate monarchy. A feature of this process in Poland was the actual exclusion of cities from participation in representative bodies of government.
Polish-Lithuanian Union. The fight against the Teutonic Order encouraged Polish magnates to seek unification with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was also subject to attacks by the order. In 1385, the Polish-Lithuanian union was concluded in Kreva. Polish magnates sought the inclusion of Lithuania into the Polish state and the introduction of Catholicism in it. Queen Jadwiga in 1386 married the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, who became the Polish king under the name Vladislav II (1386-1434). The union of the two powers was not only a means of defense against German aggression, but also opened up the possibility for Polish feudal lords to exploit the rich Ukrainian lands previously seized by Lithuania. An attempt to completely incorporate Lithuania into Poland met resistance from the feudal lords of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The popular masses resisted the introduction of Catholicism. The opposition was led by Jogaila's cousin Vitovt. The union was dissolved. But in 1401 it was restored while maintaining the state independence of Lithuania.
Battle of Grunwald. In 1409, the “Great War” broke out with the Teutonic Order. The general battle took place on July 15, 1410 near Grunwald, where the flower of the order's troops was completely defeated and destroyed. Despite this victory, the Polish-Lithuanian side did not achieve major results. Nevertheless, the historical significance of the Battle of Grunwald was great. She stopped the aggression of the German feudal lords against Poland, Lithuania and Rus', and undermined the power of the Teutonic Order. With the decline of the order, the forces of German feudal aggression in Central Europe weakened, which made it easier for the Polish people to fight for their national independence. The victory at Grunwald contributed to the growth of the international importance of the Polish state.
Return of the Gdańsk Pomerania. After the election of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk (1447-1492) to the Polish throne, the Polish-Lithuanian personal union was restored. During his reign, a new war between Poland and the Teutonic Order began, which lasted 13 years and ended in the victory of Poland. According to the Treaty of Torun in 1466, Poland regained Eastern Pomerania with Chelminsk land and Gdansk and part of Prussia, and access to the Baltic Sea was again obtained. The Teutonic Order recognized itself as a vassal of Poland.
Poland - the most detailed information about the country with photos. Sights, cities of Poland, climate, geography, population and culture.
Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska)
Poland is one of the largest countries in Central Europe. The country is located between the Baltic Sea in the north, the Sudetenland and the Carpathians in the south, in the basin of the Vistula and Oder rivers. Poland borders Belarus, the Czech Republic, Germany, Lithuania, Russia (Kaliningrad region), Slovakia and Ukraine. This is a country with a rich history and wonderful culture, ancient cities, picturesque landscapes and extraordinary historical places. Despite all the troubles that Poland experienced in the 20th century, it rebuilt its rich heritage, traditions and economy.
Useful information about Poland
- Population - 38.4 million people (36th place in the world).
- Area - 312,679 square kilometers.
- Language - Polish.
- The currency is Polish zloty.
- Time - Central European UTC +1, summer +2.
- Visa - Schengen.
- Poland is a Catholic country. Poles are very religious. Many major holidays are church holidays.
- Public holidays in Poland: New Year (December 31 and January 1), Epiphany or the Feast of the Three Kings (January 6), Easter (lunar calendar, usually March-April), Easter Monday, May Day (May 1), Constitution Day (3 May), Pentecost (seventh Sunday after Easter), Assumption Holy Mother of God(August 15), All Saints' Day (November 1), National Independence Day (November 11), Christmas (December 24-26).
- Poland is a safe country. So that nothing overshadows your trip, just follow the basic rules of behavior and safety.
Geography and nature
Poland is located in the northeastern part of Central Europe and borders the Baltic Sea. Most of the territory is on the plain. The Polish lowland occupies about 2/3 of the country's territory. In the north there is the Baltic ridge, in the south and southeast - the Lesser Poland and Lublin Uplands, and the largest mountains of Poland - the Carpathians and the Sudetes - stretch along the southern border. The country is rich in lakes and rivers. The largest rivers are the Oder and Vistula. Forests occupy almost a third of the territory.
Climate
The climate is temperate, on the Baltic coast it is maritime. Winters are quite mild with slight frosts and warm summers. The continental climate in Poland is felt much less than in neighboring Belarus and Ukraine. Winters are colder in Eastern Poland.
Best time to visit
The best time to visit Poland is May-September and the Christmas period.
Story
At the beginning of our era, Germanic tribes lived in Poland. Then they were replaced by the Goths. In the middle of the first millennium, the Slavs came to these lands: the Western Glades (who gave the name to the country), the Lendzians (the word “Poles” came from the name of the tribe), the Kuyawis, the Pomeranians, the Mazovshans, the Vistulas, and the Slzyans. Gradually, on the basis of these tribes, principalities were formed in the region of Krakow (Lesser Poland) and Poznan (Greater Poland).
In 877, Lesser Poland was conquered by Moravia. Greater Poland became the center of the Polish state. The first ruler of the state is considered to be Mieszko I from the Piast dynasty. His son, Boleslav the Brave, became the first king of Poland. Under him, the state achieved real power. He conquered Lesser Poland and even occupied Kyiv. Mieszko II later lost all of his father's conquests. The power of the Polish kingdom was restored under Boleslaw II. After the death of Bolesław III in 1138, feudal fragmentation began. The principalities are formed: Kuyavia, Mazovia, Silesia, Pomerania.
In the 12th century, German expansion to the east began. Pomerania is part of the German Empire. To fight the Germans, the Poles call upon the Teutonic Order. In 1241, Polish troops were defeated by the Mongol-Tatars. At the end of the 13th century, Přemysl II took the title of king, but was soon assassinated. In 1320, Prince Władysław Łokietek of Kuyavia was crowned in Krakow and moved his capital there. In 1384, Jadwiga became queen of Poland. As a result of her marriage to the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, a powerful Polish-Lithuanian state arose. In 1410, the Teutonic Order was defeated at the Battle of Grunwald.
In 1454, Poland became a republic ruled by the Diet. In the 16th century the Jagiellonian dynasty was interrupted. In addition, Poland was drawn into the long Livonian War with Russia. As a result of the Union of Lublin, the state united with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The new state was headed by the Sejm, which chose the king.
Marienburg - the largest Teutonic castle in Europe At the beginning of the 17th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth intervened in Russia. After some time, the decline of the Polish state began. Poland lost several wars, and during the Northern War, Warsaw was occupied by the Swedes. In the second half of the 18th century, the country became a battlefield in the Seven Years' War. In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place between Prussia, Austria and Russia. The second and third partitions ended the existence of an independent Polish state.
After the First War, the Polish Republic was proclaimed. Józef Pilsudski became the head of state. On September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland. The Second World War swept through the country like a firestorm, destroying ancient cities and a huge part of the historical heritage, writing several terrible pages in its history. After the war, Poland becomes communist. In 1989, the political system changed. Since that time, Poland has been a parliamentary republic.
Poland is divided into 16 voivodeships. Voivodeships are divided into powiats, which in turn are divided into communes.
Voivodeships of Poland:
- Warmia-Masuria - Olsztyn.
- Wielkopolska - Poznan.
- West Pomeranian - Szczecin.
- Kuyavian-Pomeranian - Bydgoszcz and.
- Lodz - Lodz.
- Lyublinskoe - Lublin.
- Lubuskie - Gorzow Wielkopolski and Zielona Gora.
- Mazowieckie - Warsaw.
- Lesser Poland - Krakow.
- Lower Silesian - .
- Opole - Opole.
- Podkarpackie - Rzeszow.
- Podlasie - Bialystok.
- Pomeranian - .
- Świętokrzyskie - Kielce.
- Silesian - Katowice.
Population
The population of Poland is about 40 million people. This is one of largest countries European Union. The Polish Republic is a mononational state. Almost 97% of the population is ethnic Poles. They speak Polish, which belongs to the West Slavic group of languages.
Poles are quite polite, patriotic, and often very traditional and religious. They love to complain. Despite all the stereotypes, they are friendly, thrifty and friendly people. Strangers in Poland address each other as you. Men are called "Pan" and women are called "Pani". When meeting, men shake hands.
Transport
The country's largest airport is located in the capital - Warsaw. Airports are also located in Krakow, Gdansk, Wroclaw, Poznan, Katowice, Rzeszow, Bydgoszcz, Lodz, Lublin. Most European carriers fly to the country.
Poland has rail connections with many European capitals: Moscow, Kyiv, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest. There are many international bus lines that connect to major Polish cities and most major European cities.
Highways connect Poland with Germany and the Czech Republic. Roads of this type also connect Warsaw, Wroclaw, Gdansk, Krakow, Poznan, Lodz.
Cities of Poland
The most interesting cities in Poland:
- Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. The old town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site as an example of restored historical heritage. Warsaw is museums, culture and entertainment.
- Krakow is the cultural capital of Poland and probably the most beautiful city in the country. Its center is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is filled with old churches, historical and cultural monuments. Here is the largest medieval market square in Europe and the ancient residence of Polish kings - Wawel Castle.
- Lodz - Polish Manchester. One of the centers of Polish industry boasts 18th-19th century architecture and the longest boulevard in Europe.
- Wroclaw is the capital of Silesia, a city of stunning beauty with a rich history and picturesque historical center. The old city is located on 12 islands. In terms of the number of bridges, Wroclaw is second only to Venice, Amsterdam and Hamburg.
- Poznan is an ancient city that is considered the cradle of the Polish people. The historical center is an amazing mixture of architecture from different eras.
- Gdansk is one of the most beautiful cities on the Baltic coast. An ancient trading port that was a member of the Hanseatic League.
- Szczecin is one of the most important Polish ports with a huge harbor full of Gothic and Art Nouveau buildings, parks and museums.
- Bydgoszcz - old market town with beautiful architecture from the 18th and 19th centuries and a picturesque area near the Brda River.
- Lublin is the capital of Eastern Poland. Old City with typical Polish architecture and a compact historical center.
- Torun is one of the oldest cities in Poland, the birthplace of the great Copernicus, full of medieval Gothic buildings.
- Malbork is a small town and former capital Teutonic Order.
Attractions
Most of the main attractions of Poland are the medieval cores of ancient cities, historical and cultural monuments of the same period. The number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites is 15. Many attractions were significantly damaged during the Second World War or were even completely destroyed.
The most interesting city in Poland for tourists is Krakow. This is the ancient capital of the Polish kingdom, whose legacy survived the crucible of World War II. The historical center of Krakow is a UNESCO site. Its main attraction is Wawel - a royal castle on a hill. This is a complex of medieval buildings that were the political center of Poland for several centuries.
St. Mary's Church in Krakow You should definitely visit the Main Market - the largest market square in Europe. It houses St. Mary's Church - one of the most beautiful Gothic cathedrals in Poland, many historical buildings with a wide variety of architecture.
Wieliczka is an ancient salt mine that was in operation for 700 years. This is one of the most famous landmarks in Poland. It is a mysterious labyrinth of 300 kilometers of halls and corridors carved into pure salt (the deepest layers of the mine are located at a depth of 372 meters underground). The tours show only a short section, including a salt lake, caves and a beautiful chapel.
Auschwitz is the largest Nazi concentration camp, witness to enormous evil and pain. This terrible and tragic place reminds all people of the horrors of World War II. Auschwitz is located in a small town near Krakow.
Wroclaw has a huge old city, located on several islands, which are connected by more than 100 bridges. The historical center amazes with its completeness of Gothic, Baroque and Art Nouveau architecture.
The old town of Gdansk, the maritime capital of Poland, amazes with its size, architecture and atmosphere. The largest brick Gothic church in the world is located here.
The old town of one of the oldest cities in Poland - Poznan, is famous for its ancient architecture, market square and historical churches.
Toruń is often called the “Krakow of the North”. The medieval historical center is included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
In the small town of Malbork in the Middle Ages the capital of the Teutonic Order was located. The knights built an imposing red brick castle here, which is the largest Gothic fortress in Europe.
Masurian Lakes - more than 3000 picturesque lakes. A paradise for nature and water sports lovers.
Kazimierz Dolny is the most famous of the small Polish towns with a historical Renaissance center, the ruins of a romantic castle, and a Baroque church.
Czestochowa is located in the heart of the Krakow-Czestochowa Upland in a region with picturesque Jurassic cliffs. For most Poles it is an important place of pilgrimage.
Zamość Zamość is a small city in Eastern Poland, famous for its Renaissance-style historical center.
Accommodation
Hotel prices in Poland in Lately close to Central European standards, especially for popular tourist centers. The country's tourism infrastructure is constantly developing. In most cities, finding accommodation is not a problem if you do it in advance.
Kitchen
Traditional Polish cuisine is simple, rich in meat, sauces and vegetables. Poles are very fond of pickled vegetables and cabbage salad. Among the soups, it is worth highlighting barzcz czerwony (borscht), zupa ogórkowa or grzybowa (cucumber or mushroom soup), żurek (rye soup, usually served with sausage and egg), kapuśniak (similar to cabbage soup). Other traditional dishes: pirogi (our dumplings), bigos (stew with vegetables), jabłecznik (apple pie). In Poland you can buy excellent traditional products: sausage, cheese, pastries.
The history of the country is closely connected with the general history of Europe and with the events that have taken place on the continent over the last millennium.
Ancient history of Poland
In ancient times, Germans, Goths, and Slavs lived on these lands. Over time, the Slavic tribes began to unite, which ultimately led to the formation of Poland in the 9th century. The center of the then state was the city of Gniezno. In 966, Christianity of the Catholic rite was adopted. In 1320, the city of Krakow became the political center. In the fourteenth century Galicia was annexed. In 1385, after the conclusion of the Union of Krevo, the united Letov-Polish state arose, and Catholicism began to spread in Lithuania and Western Russian lands.
History of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1569 is the date of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin. As a result of this event, the state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed. The Kingdom was a confederation of the Principality of Lithuania and Poland, headed by a king elected by the Sejm. In 1648, an uprising began under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and later, from 1654 to 1667, a war took place between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These events led to the weakening of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and to its loss of Kyiv and the lands it owned on the left bank of the Dnieper. The further gradual decline of the kingdom led, at the end of the eighteenth century, to three partitions of Poland. The country was divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia.
Period without independence
After Napoleon defeated Prussia, the Duchy of Warsaw was created on the part of Poland that belonged to Prussia. After the defeat of Napoleon, another division of the country was carried out. Her fate was decided at the Congress of Vienna. It was assumed that the Polish lands would be granted autonomy in Prussia, Austria and Russia. As a result, it so happened that autonomy was given only by the Russian Empire, as a result of which the autonomous Kingdom of Poland was formed within Russia.
Recent history of Poland
In 1918, the independence of Poland was declared. The first head of state after independence was Józew Piłsudski. From 1919 to 1921, the newly formed state waged war with the Soviet Union. The result of the war was the signing of a peace treaty in Riga. This treaty determined the boundaries between the countries. Western Belarusian and Western Ukrainian lands were transferred to Poland. In 1939, the country was occupied by German troops, and in the same year, Western Ukrainian and Western Belarusian lands were ceded to the USSR. Poland was liberated from Germany by the Soviet Union. In 1952 the country received the name Polish People's Republic, and in 1955 became a member of the Warsaw Pact. In 1989, free elections were held in the country. Reforms began in the republic. In 1999, the state became a member of NATO, and in 2004 it joined the European Union.
