Over the years of political independence, Syria has achieved well-known success in the development of national industry. The Syrian government traditionally pays very close attention to the country's industrialization issues. This, first of all, is reflected in the five-year plans for the country's socio-economic development.
Since the 70s, a program of structural restructuring of the economy has been carried out in Syria in the interests of increasing the role of the sphere of material production in it through the accelerated development of relevant industries. Particular attention in this process was paid to industrial production as the basis for strengthening the material and technical base of the entire national economy. Among other things, it was planned to place emphasis on the priority development of manufacturing industries based on the use and processing of local raw materials.
In these years, in the development of the public sector of industry, a tendency towards the construction of large economic facilities, which immediately took a leading position in the industry, was very clearly evident. First of all, this applied to oil refining, chemical, cement and some other industries.
Despite noticeable successes in creating a national industry, its formation and development is fraught with great difficulties associated both with a general lack of monetary and financial resources and persistent structural imbalances in the economy, and with the lack of an adequate number of qualified workers, existing shortcomings in planning and scientific research. ensuring production, as well as sales of products.
Since the industrial production process continues to be largely focused on the use of imported components, one of the most pressing problems is the problem of capacity utilization. In this regard, the government has repeatedly made attempts to revive production in the “free zones” in order to, using the preferential customs regime granted to them for the import of raw materials, solve the problem of supplying the latter.
The public sector plays the main role in industrial output. In the first half of the 90s, the share of the public sector in the mining industry was estimated at 70%, and in the manufacturing industry - about 60%.
The number of people employed in the mining industry in the early 90s was 6.9 thousand people.
Extraction of basic minerals
Despite the country's limited natural resources, the mining industry has been the most dynamic sector of the Syrian economy in recent years.
The basis of the mining industry is oil production. Its share in the total production volume of the mining industry is estimated at 97%.
The overwhelming majority of oil reserves and its production are located in the Rumelan, Jebissi and South Euphrates regions of the east and northeast of the country.
By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria, of which approximately 2 dozen are under development and operation.
Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production. The work was carried out under risk service contracts. At the same time, the most promising areas for oil were granted concessions to foreign companies.
By the mid-80s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon.
Over the past few years, Syria has stepped up its gas production activities. The traditional activity in this area is associated with the use of associated gas, the recoverable reserves of which are estimated at 11 billion cubic meters. m. Its annual production is approximately 500 billion cubic meters. m.
In 1987, a gas purification complex built by the Czechoslovak side was put into operation at the Djebissi field. The Palmyra region is considered the most promising in terms of expanding gas production and its use in industry. Its natural gas is planned to be used, in particular, as fuel for power plants, including the Mharde power station near the city of Hama.
Phosphate mining plays a significant role in the Syrian economy, the explored reserves of which are estimated at 1.5 billion tons. Their main reserves are concentrated in the Khneifns and Sharkiyya fields.
Field development is carried out by Romania, Poland, and Bulgaria. Due to the fact that Syrian phosphates have a high chlorine content (0.02 - 0.2%), an acute problem is the creation of special capacities for their washing.
Iron ore reserves in Syria are estimated at 400 - 500 million tons. The main areas of its occurrence are considered to be Zabadani and Bludan (iron content in the ore is 32%), as well as Raju (28%).
Among other minerals, rock salt, asphalt, gravel, building stone, gypsum, marble and a number of others are mined in Syria.
Oil refining occupies an important place among the manufacturing industries. The oil refining industry is represented by 2 plants - in Homs and Baniyas. The capacity of the plant in Homs is more than 5 million tons of oil per year. The plant runs on a mixture of Syrian heavy (50%) and light oil. The Baniyas plant with a capacity of 6 million tons per year is also designed to process a mixture of imported light and heavy local oil (20–50%). During the 80s, the oil refinery in Homs was repeatedly reconstructed in order to expand the range of products, in particular by producing 100 thousand tons of lubricating oils per year.
The traditional sector of the Syrian economy is the textile industry, which accounts for just under 20% of gross manufacturing output. This industry employs more than 50% of the workers employed in all major industry in the country. The main emphasis in the development of this industry is on the primary use of local raw materials, which determines the leading position in the cotton production industry. The overwhelming majority of cotton fabrics are produced at public sector enterprises. They produce mainly sheet linen, flannel, shirting, printed and drapery fabrics, poplin and others. The general management of textile enterprises in the public sector is carried out by the General Organization "Unitekstil".
The production of silk fabrics in Syria is based primarily on imported raw materials.
The production of hosiery, cotton knitwear, and underwear has developed quite significantly in Syria. Mostly these products are produced in small enterprises. Cotton yarn and hosiery fabrics produced in the country are consumed domestically and exported in large quantities mainly to neighboring Arab countries. The cotton ginning industry is represented by 58 factories, most of which are equipped with outdated equipment.
Approximately 1.5 dozen state textile companies have at their disposal more than 500 thousand spindles and over 4.5 thousand looms.
The wide scope of capital construction necessitated the need for the state to carry out a number of practical measures aimed at accelerating the development of the cement industry. The total cement production capacity in Syria is about 5 million tons per year, which makes it possible to allocate a sufficient amount for export. The largest factories in this industry are in Tartusi (capacity 6.5 thousand tons of cement per day), Adre (about 4 thousand tons), Aleppo (2 thousand tons), Hama (1 thousand tons).
The production of building materials is established at a ceramics factory in Hama, capable of producing up to 30 million tiles per year, factories producing glass and sanitary products and at some other enterprises.
The chemical and petrochemical industries play an increasingly important role in the economic life of the country. Among the products they produce, phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers, urea and ammonia, detergents, varnishes and paints should be noted.
Homs became a major center for the production of fertilizers in the 80s. In addition to the plant with a capacity of 140 thousand tons of ammonia and nitric acid per year, in 1982 a new enterprise with a design capacity of 300 thousand tons of ammonia and 315 thousand tons of urea per year was put into operation. In 1983, a plant for processing 800 thousand tons of phosphates per year was put into operation. It also produces calcium nitrate, sulfuric acid, ammonia and a number of other products.
The leading manufacturer of paints and varnishes is the state-owned paints and chemicals company Omayyad. Its annual production is 15 thousand tons of products.
Syria devotes an important place to the development of the food industry. Enterprises in this industry produce products such as pasteurized milk, butter and vegetable oil, flour, pasta, sugar, tobacco products, various drinks and juices. Great prospects in this area are associated with increasing capacity for the production of canned vegetables and fruits, a noticeable impetus to the development of which was given with the commissioning of three canning factories in Hasek, Mayadini, and Idlib.
The sugar industry was established in 1950. Large factories are located in Damascus and Homs. Enterprises mainly refine raw cane sugar imported from Cuba and only partially process their own sugar beets.
The oil industry is represented by more than 400 small enterprises that produce cottonseed, sesame, olive, flaxseed and some other types of vegetable oils
Relatively new sectors of Syrian industry include: mechanical engineering, electronics, and electrical engineering. Enterprises in these industries produce refrigerators, televisions, washing machines, stoves, electric motors, transformers, batteries, cables, tractors and other products. However, the production of these industries is based largely on the use of imported raw materials, materials, components and components, which, in conditions of tension in the monetary and financial sphere, limits the capabilities of the relevant enterprises.
Syria (Syrian Arab Republic)- a state located in South-West Asia.
Syria is included in the list of countries in the Middle East.
Map
Geography
The country's population is 22 million people.
The capital is the city of Damascus.
Damascus is not the largest city in Syria. The largest city is Aleppo, its population is two and a half million people. Damascus has a population of 1 million 750 thousand people.
The third major city in Syria is Homs. Its population is 900 thousand people.
Syria shares land borders with Lebanon, Turkey, Israel, Jordan and Iraq.
The country is located on the Mediterranean coast.
Syria has both mountains and plains.
Syria has forests that occupy 2.6% of the country's total area. There are both coniferous and subtropical evergreen forests.
Syria is administratively divided into 14 governorates: Damascus, Rif Damascus, Deir ez-Zor, Daraa, Idlib, Latakia, Raqqa, Tartus, Aleppo, Hama, Hasakah, Homs, Quneitra, Es-Suwayda.
Syria has one time zone. The difference with Greenwich is +2 hours.
There are a large number of mountain ranges and mountain systems in Syria: the Jebel Ar-Ruwaq range, the Jebel Abu Rujmain range, the Jebel Bishri range, the Jebel Ansaria range, the Anti-Lebanon mountains, the Kurdish mountains.
The highest point in Syria is Mount Hermon. The height of this peak is 2814 meters. The border with Israel runs along the top of this mountain, so this mountain is also considered the highest point in Israel.
The largest Syrian river is the Euphrates. Its total length across the territory of all countries is 2700 km.
Another major Syrian river is the Tigris.
The largest Syrian lake is Al-Hassad. Its length is 80 km and its width is 8 km.
Roads
The total length of railways in Syria is 2,750 km. Two types of gauge are used: European (Stephenson) with a width of 1435 mm and Japanese (width 1050 mm). From the capital of the country there is a passenger connection with Aleppo and Homs. Syria has direct rail links with Turkey, Iraq and Jordan.
There are about 26,000 km of roads in Syria. There are several expressways connecting Damascus with major cities. The quality of the roads is satisfactory; many roads were seriously damaged during the ongoing Civil War.
Story
Syria is the country where agriculture arose, but historians often give the palm in this matter to Egypt, citing the fact that at the time of the emergence of agriculture, the territory of modern Syria was part of Ancient Egypt.
Syria has a unique history; powerful ancient and medieval states and empires arose on its territory:
a) Ancient Syria (before 635 AD) - the emergence of the city-state of Ebla (III millennium BC), the capture of Syria by Ancient Egypt (II millennium BC), the Aramaic Kingdom (X-VIII centuries BC) , capture of Syria by the Assyrian kingdom (802 BC), capture of Syria by Alexander the Great (332 BC) and its inclusion in Macedonia, conquest of Syria by Great Armenia (83 BC), conquest of Syria by Ancient Rome (64 BC) BC), the formation of the separatist state of the Palmyra kingdom on the territory of Syria, the collapse of Ancient Rome and the inclusion of Syria into the Byzantine Empire (late 4th century AD);
b) Medieval Syria (from 635) - the capture and inclusion of Syria into the Arab Caliphate (682 AD), the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars (1260), the capture of Syria by the Mamluks and annexation to Egypt (1260), the conquest of Syria by the Ottoman Empire (1517), return of Syria to Egyptian control (1833), return to the Ottoman Empire (1840);
c) Recent times and modern times - the formation of the Damascus Caliphate (1918), the defeat of the Caliphate from France and the establishment of French rule (1920), the proclamation of a republic (1932) with the preservation of the power of the French mandate, gaining complete independence from France (1946), the war against Israel (1948) and the defeat of Syria, unification with Egypt and the formation of the United Arab Republic (1958), the collapse of the United Arab Republic (1963), a military coup (1966), a course towards building socialism (1969) and rapprochement with USSR, Syrian-Israeli war (1973), withdrawal of Syrian occupation forces from Lebanon (2005), anti-government uprising and Civil War (since 2011).
Minerals
Syria is not considered a country that is rich in mineral resources. Of the strategic hydrocarbons, the country has only oil in sufficient quantities. There is little natural gas in the country, and there is no coal in Syria.
Other minerals produced in Syria include phosphorites, uranium, chromium, iron, manganese, lead, sulfur, asbestos, copper, dolomite, asphalt, limestone, tuff, basalt, and table salt.
Climate
Syria has two types of climate - Mediterranean subtropical and arid continental. On the Mediterranean coast the climate is subtropical, with hot and humid summers and mild and rainy winters. In the center and south of the country, summers are dry and hot, and winters are cool, with frosts occurring in desert areas. Sometimes there may be a little snow every few years in the winter.
Oil is the “black blood” that fuels the Syrian conflict. It is from its sales on the black or official world market that all four main parties to the Syrian crisis are fighting, buying weapons, ammunition and food. These are the Syrian Arab Army (government forces, SAA), the Free Syrian Army (FSA), which is called the so-called “moderate opposition”, militants of the terrorist quasi-formation “Islamic State” 1 (the organization’s activities are prohibited on the territory of the Russian Federation by decision of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation) and Jabhat al-Nusra (banned in Russia), as well as paramilitary Kurdish units.
The Kurds are a people of 40 million who live compactly in the territories of four countries: Syria, Iraq, Iran and Turkey. As a result of the United States invasion of Iraq in 2003, the Kurds took advantage of the opportunity presented by fate to create Iraqi Kurdistan. It should be noted that the Iraqi and Syrian Kurds who are fighting shoulder to shoulder against the Islamic State militants are not the same thing. The only decoration of the capital of Syrian Kurdistan, Rojava, is the tirelessly working oil derricks.
The main source of financial support for the Kurds is the rich oil fields located in northern Syria. The most important of them are Shaddadi and Rumelani. Their reserves are estimated at hundreds of millions of barrels of “black gold”. Before the war, in the area of the city of Al-Hasakah, which today, according to some information, is already completely under the control of the Supreme Kurdish Council of Western Kurdistan, about 40 thousand barrels of oil were produced per day (a tenth of Syria’s entire oil production).
During the Syrian conflict, oil wells did not remain abandoned. According to Lebanese media reports, oil production in the fields around Hasakah has only increased - to 170 thousand barrels per day. The Kurds, unlike the Islamic State, who traded oil for almost $10 per barrel, have established the process of oil production in all seriousness. Moreover, the Kurds not only extract oil, but also process a significant part of it using old equipment.
At the moment, it is the Kurdish formations that have actually surrounded the capital of the “Islamic State” - Raqqa. At the same time, military assistance to the Kurds is provided both from the Russian Federation and from the international anti-terrorist coalition led by the United States. The Russian Aerospace Forces do not regularly strike positions of ISIS 1 militants, which Kurdish formations also encounter. In turn, the Western coalition not only carries out airstrikes against terrorists, but supplies the Kurds with light small arms and artillery weapons. Moreover, according to media reports, about a hundred American special forces are now serving as military instructors in the ranks of Kurdish forces.
Political scientist, expert of the Foundation for the Development of Civil Society Institutions “Public Diplomacy” Vladimir Kireev in the comments Federal News Agency noted that one of the main reasons for the outbreak of war on Syrian territory is considered to be the desire of individual countries to build a pipeline for liquefied gas, and probably oil, from the Persian Gulf region. For this purpose, the Gulf countries made a lot of efforts to first persuade the political leadership of Syria led by Bashar al-Assad to cooperation, which was ultimately rejected.
“As a result, this led to a desire to overthrow him. Probably, these same energy pipelines are the reason for active interference in the fate of the Syrian people by the EU countries and the USA. They are strongly interested in the supply of oil and gas from the Persian Gulf, including to diversify gas supplies from the Russian Federation, with which the EU and the United States already had more than tense relations at the beginning of the Arab Spring. Such cooperation between the Syrian Arab Republic and the Gulf countries was unacceptable both for most of Bashar al-Assad’s entourage and for Damascus’ main partner in the region - Iran. For Tehran, the loss of partner Syria meant the rupture of the “Shiite” space, which unfolded from Iran to Lebanon with access to the Mediterranean Sea, which turned Lebanon into an isolated and, in fact, low-value enclave,” explained Vladimir Kireev.
Thus, the expert noted, oil and gas, along with problems in the Syrian economy and failures in political governance, can be called the main reasons for the outbreak of hostilities in this Arab country. Syrian oil is not as abundant as that of the Gulf countries and Iran, but it is enough to “keep afloat” for many years the political system of the Syrian Arab Republic, and since 2011, all the warring parties in Syria. It is no secret that all the main “players” in Syria throughout all the years of the war have been financed to a large extent thanks to the trade in oil - including Syrian oil produced in the occupied territories.
“When studying the map of Syria, it is striking that the main centers of clashes, strongholds and transport routes are built in accordance with the logic of not only large settlements, airports and ethnic territories, but also in accordance with the areas of explored oil and gas fields and production areas of this valuable mineral resource. The oil trade makes it possible to supply all warring parties with weapons, clothing, equipment, and money to pay the fighters. It allows you to ensure the loyalty of officials and intelligence officers, local leaders and politicians. In this matter, there is no difference between the SAA, the FSA, extremists from the Islamic State and Jabhat al-Nusra, the Army of Islam, Ahrar al-Sham, as well as the Syrian Kurdish units from the YPG and YPJ,” I am sure expert.
At the same time, the political scientist noted, if we are talking about Islamists, then the situation with them is more or less clear. Their future is predetermined by the world community. If they do not disappear from the political space, then in Syria and Iraq in their modern form they will have to cease to exist. But the future of Syria and Iraq as integral states is far from being so clearly guaranteed. The point is that the Kurds - one of the largest divided peoples on the planet - have long and persistently sought to create their own state. And the situation of the war in Iraq and Syria gives them such a chance.
“Although the Kurds declare their loyalty to official Damascus, in fact we can say that they may not be limited to the autonomy proclaimed on January 1, 2014. Having a large population, combat-ready troops, support from the US, the EU, and having a serious ideology in the form of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) Abdullah Ocalan, Syrian Kurdistan could easily become a hotbed for the formation of a Kurdish state. Moreover, unlike the Iraqi Kurds, who are actually subordinate to Ankara, the Syrian Kurds have powerful support in the form of the PKK operating in Turkey and northern Iraq, the sympathy of the European left, and the overall global anti-imperialist movement, which of course does not have divisions, but its image is also not an empty phrase. The main thing in this situation is the desire of the United States to obtain a zone of control in Syria, to provide a factor of pressure on Turkey, and a source for the formation of a new Kurdish state, which was stated more than once by officials at scientific conferences. In this situation, Damascus should be more attentive to its northern allies, because their navigation could become autonomous from Damascus as a result of the war,” concluded Vladimir Kireev.
As experts warn, the result of a successful Kurdish offensive on Raqqa could be the loss of significant oil fields by the Syrian Republic. It will be almost impossible to return these fields - as practice shows, the Kurds do not share oil revenues with the rest of the Syrian people, although they exploit wells located on Syrian soil.
In addition, experts note that no one is preventing Kurdish units, with the support of the United States, from attacking the equally oil-rich Deir ez-Zor from the north. If this attack is successful, Syria will lose all significant oil and gas fields, which means the country will be doomed to collapse, and Bashar al-Assad will ultimately be destroyed.
1 The organization is prohibited on the territory of the Russian Federation.
Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great), I. O. Gavritukhin (Historical sketch: Syria from the conquests of Alexander the Great to Arab conquest), M. Yu. Roshchin (Historical sketch: Syria from the Arab conquest to 1970), T. K. Koraev (Historical sketch: Syria in 1970–2014), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed forces), V. S Nechaev (Health), E. A. Alizade. (Literature), T. Kh. Starodub (Architecture and fine arts), D. A. Guseinova (Theatre), A. S. Shakhov (Cinema)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great); >>
SYRIA, Syrian Arab Republic (Al-Jumhuriya al-Arabiya al-Suriya).
General information
S. is a state in the South-West. Asia. It borders on Turkey in the north, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south, Israel in the southwest, and Lebanon in the west; in the west it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. Pl. 185.2 thousand km 2. Us. OK. 22.0 million people (2014, UN assessment). The capital is Damascus. Official language – Arabic. The monetary unit is sire. lb. Adm.-terr. division: 14 governorates (provinces).
Administrative-territorial division (2011)
| Governorate (province) | Area, thousand km 2 | Population, million people | Administrative center |
|---|---|---|---|
| Damascus (city) | 0,1 | 1,8 | |
| Daraa | 3,7 | 1 | Daraa |
| Deir ez-Zor | 33,1 | 1,2 | Deir ez-Zor |
| Idlib | 6,1 | 1,5 | Idlib |
| Latakia | 2,3 | 1 | Latakia |
| Rif Dimashq | 18 | 2,8 | Damascus |
| Tartus | 1,9 | 0,8 | Tartus |
| Aleppo (Aleppo) | 18,5 | 4,9 | Aleppo (Aleppo) |
| Hama | 10,2 | 1,6 | Hama |
| Homs | 40,9 | 1,8 | Homs |
| El Quneitra | 1,9 | 0,1 | El Quneitra |
| Al Hasakah | 23,3 | 1,5 | Al Hasakah |
| Ar-Raqqa | 19,6 | 0,9 | Ar-Raqqa |
| Es-Suwayda | 5,6 | 0,4 | Es-Suwayda |
S. is a member of the UN (1945), Arab League (1945, membership suspended in 2011), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (1972, expelled in 2012), IMF (1947), IBRD (1947).
Political system
S. is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted by referendum on February 26, 2012. The form of government is a mixed republic.
The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a term of 7 years (with the right to re-election). The president appoints the cabinet of ministers, determines the country's foreign policy and is the supreme commander in chief of the armed forces. forces. According to the Constitution, the President of Syria must be a Muslim.
The highest body of legislators. authorities - unicameral Nar. council (Majlis al-Shaab). Consists of 250 deputies elected by direct vote for 4 years.
The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President.
Leading political parties: Arab Party. socialist Revival (PASV), Progressive National. front, Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes, etc.
Nature
Relief
Shores preim. low, slightly indented by bays. The northern part of the territory is a plateau, descending from northwest to southeast from 1000 to 500–200 m. In the west, two chains of mountains stretch from north to south, separated by tectonics. El-Gab depression with the river valley. El Asi (Orontes). Zap. the chain is made up of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah; altitude up to 1562 m), the eastern range is made up of the Al-Akrad and Ez-Zawiya mountains (altitude up to 877 m). Along the border with Lebanon there is the Anti-Lebanon ridge (up to 2629 m high, Mount Tal'at Musa) and its south. continuation - the Esh-Sheikh ridge with the highest point N. Mount Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) alt. up to 2814 m. Anti-Lebanon has many karst landforms formed in limestone. To the east of the city of Homs stretches the Tadmor mountain range, consisting of low (up to 1387 m) mountains (Esh-Shaumaria, Esh-Shaar, etc.). There is a volcanic site in the southwest. Ed-Duruz massif (altitude up to 1803 m). In the southeast there is part of the Syrian Desert; stratified rocky plains and high plateaus predominate. 500–800 m, takyrs are typical. To the east parts along the river valley The Euphrates is an alluvial lowland. To the northeast of it is the high Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau. 200–450 m with separation remnant hills (Abd al-Aziz mountains up to 920 m high, etc.). Along the Mediterranean coast there is a narrow (10–15 km) coastal lowland, divided by mountain spurs into separate sections. plots.
Geological structure and minerals
The territory of S. is located in the north. on the outskirts of the Precambrian Arabian Platform, in the area of distribution of the Phanerozoic platform cover with a thickness of several. km, composed of shallow-marine terrigenous and carbonate deposits (sandstones, clays, limestones, marls, chalk, etc.) with horizons of flints and phosphorites, as well as salt rocks. The coastal lowlands contain Neogene-Quaternary fluvial, coastal-marine, and aeolian deposits (sands, sandstones, silts, clays, gravels, limestones). In the southwest there are covers of Neogene-Quaternary basalts. In the late Cenozoic west. part of the northern territory experienced uplift; A regional seismically active fault arose (the so-called Levantine fault), along which a rift valley formed, filled with Neogene-Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. There are deposits of cement and construction. limestone, rock salt and gypsum, sand, gravel, etc.
Main the wealth of the subsoil of S. - oil and natural flammable gas, the deposits of which are located in the center, east and northeast, belongs to Persian Gulf oil and gas basin. There are deposits of cement limestone, phosphorites, gypsum, rock salt, and natural builds. materials (dolomite, marble, volcanic tuff, sand, gravel).
Climate
On the territory of the North the climate is subtropical. Mediterranean with winter-spring maximum precipitation and summer drought. On the coast the climate is maritime, cf. January temperatures 12 °C, August 27 °C; precipitation is more than 800 mm per year. In the Ansariya range (Nusairiyah) it is cooler, precipitation is up to 1500 mm per year, and snow falls in Anti-Lebanon in winter. In Damascus wed. January temperatures 6 °C, August 26 °C; precipitation approx. 200 mm per year. To the southeast direction, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 100 mm per year, and its instability from year to year increases. East part of the country has a dry continental climate; Wed temperatures in January are 4–7 °C (characterized by almost annual frosts), in August up to 33 °C (max. 49 °C). Winter sowing Shemal wind and spring Khamsin wind, blowing from the Arabian Desert, are accompanied by sand and dust storms.
Inland waters
Most of the territory has no external drainage; lowland areas are characterized by dry erosional valleys (wadis). The rivers belong to the basins of the Persian Gulf, Mediterranean and Dead Seas. The largest river is the Euphrates (length 675 km in the north) with its tributaries Khabur and Belikh. The Euphrates provides up to 80% of the North's surface runoff resources and is navigable; its flow is regulated by dams, the largest is Tabqa [near the town of Madinat et Thaura (Es-Saura)] with a hydroelectric power station and the El-Assad reservoir. Along the north-east borders of the north flows the river. Tiger. In the north-west there is a significant river. El Asi (Orontes). In the southwest, along the border with Jordan, the river flows. Yarmouk (tributary of the Jordan River), along the border with Lebanon - river. El-Kebir. The river flow is formed entirely within the northern borders. Barada, irrigating the Damascus Ghouta oasis. The maximum river flow occurs in winter; in summer, the rivers experience low water. The largest lake is Homs. Groundwater is widely used through wells and karezes; oases are often associated with their outlets to the surface. Powerful underground aquifers are concentrated in the foothill plains of Anti-Lebanon and in the Damascus region. Annually renewable water resources amount to 16.8 km 3, water availability is low - 882 m 3 / person. in year. Annual water withdrawal 16.7 km 3 , of which 9% is used in housing and communal water supply, 4% - in industry, 87% in villages. x-ve. In North, the issues of sharing the flow of the Euphrates River with Turkey and Iraq have not been resolved.
Soils, flora and fauna
Sandy loamy-loamy deserts with thin gray soils are widespread on the plateau. In the south, rocky-gravelly hamadas predominate, in places with gypsum-bearing and salt-bearing deposits, in the west and in the center. parts are areas of sandy deserts. In the depressions of the relief there are salt marshes. Along the northern Along the northern borders, gray-brown and brown soils are common. The Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau is characterized by light gray soils with a pronounced carbonate horizon. In the coastal lowlands there are brown soils; with height they are replaced by mountain brown and mountain forest soils.
The eastern, arid part of the country is characterized by desert groups with the participation of saxaul, shrubs and subshrubs (saltwort, wormwood), and ephemera. On the Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau, low-grass steppes with bluegrass, sedge and other ephemeroids, including wormwood, are typical. In the Euphrates Valley, areas of riverine forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarix have been preserved. Subtropical forests grow in the mountains and on the coast. pine trees, Cilician fir; small tracts of relict Lebanese cedar have been preserved in the mountains. To the west On the slopes of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah), broad-leaved oak forests with the participation of evergreen trees and shrubs are common. The lower parts of the slopes are usually covered by secondary maquis and garigue formations. To the east The slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges are dominated by xeromorphic mountain steppes, turning into pistachio woodlands and shrubs in the mid-mountain zone, and into semi-deserts in the lower mountain zone.
The fauna is diverse. There are 125 species of mammals, including striped hyena, wolf, jackal, caracal, fennec fox; ungulates include antelope, wild ass onager, and many rodents. In the mountains with forest vegetation, the Syrian bear, wild boar, and wild cat are occasionally found, and in the treeless high mountains - the bezoar goat. The avifauna is rich: 360 species of birds, including migratory ones, there are especially many of them in river valleys and on the shores of lakes (storks, herons, ducks); among the birds of prey there are falcons, eagles, and hawks. There are 127 species of reptiles. 16 species of mammals, 15 species of birds, 8 species of reptiles are endangered.
Condition and protection of the environment
In the north, where the most ancient centers of agriculture are located, nature has been greatly changed. Forests occupy only 3% of the territory. Basic eco-friendly problems - overgrazing, deforestation and fragmentation, fires, habitat destruction, especially along river valleys and on the coast. To the east In arid areas, desertification of landscapes, water and wind erosion, and soil degradation occur. The problem of pollution of rivers and reservoirs by municipal and industrial waste is urgent. wastewater, including from oil refineries. The network of protected areas includes 19 objects (according to other data, 23) of uncertain status, occupying 0.6% of the territory; lake Al Jabbul is a wetland of global significance.
Population
The majority of the population of S. (88.2%) are Arabs - Syrians (84.8%), Palestinians, Egyptians, Jordanians, etc. Kurds and Yazidis live in the north (8%), in the northeast (between the Euphrates and Tigris ) - speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages Western. Assyrians (1%) and Turoyos (0.1%), as well as Armenians (0.4%); small communities of speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages also live northeast of Damascus. The country is inhabited by Turks (“Turkmen”; 0.6%), people from the Caucasus (0.5%), Persians (0.3%), gypsies, etc.
The population increased 6.5 times between 1950 and 2014 (3.4 million people in 1950; 12.3 million people in 1990; 21.9 million people in 2012; military actions, according to UN estimates , by the beginning of 2015 led to the flight of over 4 million people from the country). Natural growth of us. 2.1% (2013), which means. birth rate (25 per 1000 inhabitants), 6 times higher than mortality (4 per 1000 inhabitants). Fertility rate 3.1 children per woman; infant mortality rate is 17 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) – 61%; the share of children (under 15 years old) is 35%, people over 65 years old – 4%. Wed. life expectancy is 75 years (men – 72, women – 78). The numerical ratio of men and women is approximately equal. Wed. density of us. OK. 97 people/km 2 (2014). Most densely for selena coast, north. part of the country and the Rif Dimashq governorate (average density 100–250 people/km2), as well as areas near large cities (average density near Homs, Hama, etc. over 1000 people/km2); least – center. and east districts (less than 25 people/km 2). Share of mountains us. 54% (2013). Largest cities (thousand people, 2014): Aleppo (1602.3), Damascus (1569.4), Homs (775.4), Hama (460.6), Latakia (340.2). Economically active us. OK. 5 million people (2013). In the employment structure, the service sector accounts for 53%, industry – 32.7%, p. farms – 14.3% (2012). Unemployment rate 34.9% (2012; 14.9% in 2011). OK. 12% of us. lives below the poverty line (2006).
Religion
A country with a complex religion. composition, up to 90% of us. which are Muslims (2014, assessment). The vast majority are Sunnis (Sufi brotherhoods are common); The influential Shiite minority includes the Nusayris (or Alawites, more than 10%) and the Imamis (3%). Ismailis make up 1%. The number of drusen is estimated at 3–5%. OK. 10–11% of residents are Christians, mostly. Orthodox, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch with residence in Damascus. The second largest is the Syrian (Syro-Jacobite) Orthodox Church with its center in Damascus, one of the Ancient Eastern (pre-Chalcedonian) churches. There are followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Catholics are divided into Chaldo-Catholics, Syrian-Catholics, Maronites, Greek-Catholics, Armenian-Catholics and Roman-Catholics. The Nestorians are represented by the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East. The Jebel Sinjar region, near the border with Iraq, is home to a small Yazidi community. Few the Jewish community survived in Damascus. Serious damage to religions. minorities in the country are being attacked by weapons. conflict between governments. forces and opposition.
Historical sketch
Territory of Syria before the Arab conquest
The oldest monuments of human activity in the region (ca. 800–350 thousand years ago) belong to the Acheulian [bas. monuments - between the river El-Asi (Orontes) and r. Euphrates, including Umm et Tlel (in the El Koum oasis north of Palmyra; layers about 20 m, up to the Neolithic), etc.]. This is followed by the Yabrud industry, then Hummal and Laminar (ca. 200–150 thousand years ago; from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia). The Moustier era is represented by the Levallois industry (including with pointed points such as Umm et Tlel, etc.); early Upper Paleolithic - by Aurignac and the Ahmar culture (ca. 35-17 thousand years ago), middle and late - by the Kebara culture, on the basis of which the Natufian culture .
The territory of S. is included in the oldest zone of the formation of a producing economy - Fertile Crescent. Among the supporting monuments are doceramic. Neolithic - Mureybit, Tell Abr, Tell Aswad, Ras Shamra, El Kdeir, etc. A number of centers for the appearance of ceramic dishes, which spread from the middle, have been recorded. 7th millennium BC e. Around the end In the 7th millennium, the Hassun culture was recorded in the region, then the influence of the traditions of Samarra spread and the Halaf culture spread, replaced by the northern culture. Ubeida. From the beginning The 4th millennium marked a new impulse of influences from the South. Mesopotamia, associated with the Sumerian civilization, mountain settlements arise. such as Tell Brak, Tell Hamukar in the northeast of the region, then others, including those associated with the metal trade from Anatolia.
From the beginning 3rd thousand connections with South. Mesopotamia is interrupted, the cultural community “Nineveh 5” is formed with a hierarchy of settlements, proto-cities, temple-administration. centers (see Art. Tell Khazna). Around midday In the 3rd millennium, settlements with a perimeter wall and gate openings (of the “Kranzhügel” type) appeared, correlated with the cities and the beginning of Sir proper. civilization; During the excavations of Tell Beidar (ancient city of Nabad), the oldest cuneiform archive in the region (25th century) was discovered (in the East Semitic language, related to Akkadian). From the beginning 3rd millennium in the mountainous regions framing the Great Mesopotamian Plain, migrants from the Caucasus appear, carriers Kura-Araxes culture. At the same time, the Canaanites settled from the south, another group of Semites moved north, founding the state of Ebla, which competed with the one that arose on Wed. Euphrates Mari. At Sargon the Ancient and his successors, a number of lands were controlled by Akkad.
Around the end In the 3rd millennium, the Amorites settled in the region from the southwest. In con. 19 – beginning 18th centuries in the northeast, the state of Shamshi-Adad I (Subartu) was formed, which soon disintegrated. In the west, the states of Yamhad and Qatna competed with him and with each other. To 2nd half. 1770s – 1760s (under Zimri-Lima) refers to the last flourishing of the state of Mari, crushed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi. From the 17th century The Hurrians played a prominent role in the region along with the Semites. From the 16th century the struggle for dominance over the region begins Ancient Egypt with Mitanni and Hittite kingdom, in which Assyria also participated. The discovery of the world's oldest alphabet (c. 15th century; see also) is associated with one of the Egyptian (later Hittite) dependent cities of Ugarit. Ugaritic letter). According to Hittite-Egypt. to the world (1270) b. parts of the northern territory remained under the control of the Hittites, the south - the Egyptians. However, soon North. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Assyrians. king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–08), and the state of the Hittites, like the Asian. possessions of Egypt, in the end. 13 – beginning 12th centuries fell under the onslaught of the Sea Peoples, who destroyed a number of cities in the sir. Mediterranean coast.
K con. 2nd – beginning 1st thousand these zap. the aliens founded the state of Palestine (the territory of the North), which coexisted with the states, where the so-called. Late Hittite dynasties. A number of states also arose, founded by the Arameans (Akhlamei), who penetrated into the region along the Euphrates from the 14th century: Bit Adini (capital in Til Barsib), Bit Bakhiani in the upper reaches of Khabur (capital of Guzan - the site of Tell Halaf), Samal in Cilicia, Bit-Agushi in the region of Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. One of them, with the capital in Aram-Damascus (now Damascus; cultural layer no later than the 4th millennium, first written mention around the middle 3- th thousand), after the campaigns of its kings Reason I and Tabrimmon, it becomes the strongest in the region.
From the end 11th century expansion into the Assyrian region begins. Counteracting this is the so-called. Northern Sir. the alliance was crushed by the Assyrians. king Shalmaneser III at 857–856. T.n. South Syrian An alliance (supported by the rulers of Phenicia, Palestine, Egypt, and North Arabian tribes) led by the king of Damascus Hadadezer (Ben Hadad II) managed to stop the Assyrians at the Battle of Karkar (853). However, in 796 Damascus was captured and paid tribute to Assyria. In the 9th–8th centuries. Kingdom of Damascus once fought with Israel. In 734, the Assyrians conquered Arpad (North S.) and a number of other states in the region; resistance of a number of sir. states led by the king of Damascus Reason II, which also relied on an alliance with the kings of Israel, Gaza, and Edom, ended with the capture and destruction of Damascus in 732 Tig Latpalasar III. Reason II was executed, b. Parts of the Aramaic population were resettled inland. regions of Assyria, the region became Assyrian. province.
After the death of Assyria in 612–609, S. became the arena of struggle between Egypt and Babylonia. In 539 Babylon was captured by the Persians and S. entered Achaemenid state. After the battle of Issus (333) troops Alexander the Great occupied S. During the struggle of the Diadochi, S. fell to Antigonus, and after the Battle of Ipsus (301) it became part of the Seleucid state. After 190, its decline and collapse began, in the lands beyond the Euphrates in 132 BC. e. the state of Osroene was formed with its capital in Edessa (then part of Parthian Kingdom, Armenia, controlled by Rome, in 244 AD. e. destroyed by the Sassanids), part of the southeast. S. controlled lands Nabatean kingdom. In 83–69 BC. e. the region was captured by Armenians. king Tigran II, in 64 - Gnaeus Pompey, after which in most of the territory of modern. Rome was organized in S. and a number of adjacent lands. Prov. Syria.
From the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) prov. S. was under imp. management and was one of the most important, given its strategic. position (4 legions were stationed here) and economic. potential (highly developed agriculture and crafts, including textiles and glass making). Sire. merchants and artisans were famous in many cities of Rome. empires. Some rome. emperors and members of their families were from S. Despite the strong Hellenization and influence of Rome, especially in polyethnics. cities, local culture continued to develop in S. (mainly based on Aramaic).
From the 1st century S. is one of the centers of the spread of Christianity. On I Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (325) S. was represented by more than 20 bishops, in 451 Antiochian Orthodox Church became autocephalous in the status of patriarchy. From the 4th century the region becomes an important center of monasticism, and the pillarism originated here (see. Simeon the Stylite). In the course of internal Christian disputes (see Christology), S. became one of the centers of miaphysitism, its supporters after persecution under the emperor. Justin I (518–527) founded the Syrian Orthodox Church (finally formed in 629), which spread throughout the Middle and Middle East. East (see Syrian churches).
In 193/194 prov. S. was divided into Coelesyria and Syrophenicia. During the reforms Diocletian they entered the diocese of the East. By 350, the Euphrates Province was separated from Kelesyria. (capital of Hierapolis), after 415 - provinces S. I (capital in Antioch) and S. II [in Apamea (on the Orontes)], in 528 - a small province. Feodoria. The state, centered in Palmyra, which retained its independence for some time, was annexed to Rome ca. 19; became virtually independent in the 260s. under Odenathus; his widow (from 267) Zenobia in 270 brought under her control the territory from Egypt to Asia Minor, but in 272 she was defeated by Rome. army. Rome. Prov. in Osroene, which was one of the arenas of struggle against the Sassanid state, is known no later than the 4th century.
During the next war between Byzantium and the Sassanids in 609, the region was captured by the troops of Khosrow II, but according to a peace treaty with Heraclius I in 628 it was returned to Byzantium.
Syria from the Arab conquest to the Seljuk conquest
All R. 630s As a result of protracted wars with the Sassanids, the power of Byzantium in the territory of S. will end. weakened, dissatisfaction of local residents with tax oppression and religions intensified. intolerance. In 634, Caliph Abu Bekr transferred from the south. Iraq to Damascus detachment led by an Arab. commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. After victories at Ajnadayn, Fakhla and Marj es-Suffar, his troops entered Bosra (Busra al-Sham). In 635 they captured Damascus, in 637 they occupied Baalbek and Homs. Byzantine. army of approx. 100 thousand people launched a counteroffensive, but in the decisive battle on the river. Yarmouk (636) was put to flight by smaller Muslim forces; the victors recaptured Damascus and Homs. In 638, Jerusalem and Gaza were occupied, then Aleppo (Aleppo), Antioch (Antakya), Hama and Qinnasrin. In the mountainous regions around Latakia, Tripoli and Sidon (now Saida), resistance to the Muslims continued until the middle. 640s Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan moved the capital of the Caliphate and the residence of the Umayyad dynasty from Medina to Damascus, which remained in this status until 750. During this period, S. became political. and the cultural center of a growing state, where part of the military flocked. booty and taxes collected in various areas of the caliphate. Under the Umayyads, there was a process of Arabization of the population, Arab. the nobility turned into large landowners, the majority of the inhabitants of S. converted to Islam, Greek. state the language was replaced by Arabic. language (from the beginning of the 8th century). However, the departments were preserved. Hellenistic elements heritage, because the Arabs gradually adopted culture, social organization and political. system they encountered in sir. cities. Urban planning developed widely, and architecture was influenced by both Byzantine and Sasanian architecture (the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, the Great Mosque in Aleppo, the country palace of Mshatta, etc.).
All R. 8th century The Umayyad dynasty fell into decline and was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty, which made Baghdad its capital. The population of S. decreased, and a gradual decline of cities began. In the conditions of political and economical instability, Arabization and Islamization continued. lands. With the beginning of the decline of the Abbasid dynasty, the north. S.'s borders became more vulnerable to attacks by the Byzantines. A number of small Muslim and Christian principalities arose in the region, which turned to the military. with help either to Baghdad or to Constantinople. The collapse of the Abbasid state led to the seizure of Syria by Egypt. by the Tulunid emirs in 878, in 935 by the emirs from the Ikhshidid dynasty. In 969 S. became part of the Ismaili Fatimid Caliphate. All R. 10th century all in. The Hamdanid dynasty, whose court was in Aleppo, came to power in S., which led to a short revival of these lands, especially during the reign of Emir Seif ad-Daula (945–967).
Syria before the Ottoman conquest
Development of S. in the 10th–11th centuries. was suspended by the conquest of its interior. districts in the 1070s. Seljuks who came from Asia Minor and the north. Mesopotamia. The tribes that entered the territory of S. were part of the state Seljukids, but soon created two states independent of it with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. However, they failed to penetrate into the south. Northern regions that remained under the rule of local rulers (for example, Tanukids) or were in vassal dependence on Egypt. Fatimidov. The collapse of the Seljuk state and the fight against the Fatimids facilitated the capture of the north-west. S. crusaders (see Crusades) and the formation in 1098 of the Principality of Antioch on its territory. East S. broke up into departments. Arab possessions and Seljuk feudal lords, who waged wars both with the crusaders and among themselves. In 1154 Turk. the ruler of Aleppo, Nur ad-Din, managed to unite most of S. under his rule. After his death (1174), Salah ad-Din annexed the main. part sire. lands to their possessions. In 1188, after the victory at Hittin (1187), he drove the crusaders out of the country. parts of the Antioch prince. Salah ad-Din's successors, the Ayyubids, retained control only over the interior. areas of the north, in the north they were forced to resist the Seljuk Konya (Rum) Sultanate, in the west - the state of the crusaders, in the east - various. Turkic state formations.
In the 2nd half. 13th century S. came under Egyptian rule. Mamluks. In 1260, it was attacked by the Mongols led by Hulagu, repelled by the Mamluk Sultan Kutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut. Gradually the power of the Mamluks increased. The new Sultan Baybars succeeded in the 1260s. occupy strategically important fortified Ismaili points in the mountains of the North. In the beginning. 1290s Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil captured the last crusader fortresses on Sir. Mediterranean coast. At this time, an effective administration was created on the territory of S. system, trade was restored, the rise of crafts and rural areas began. x-va. Syria reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of Nasir ad-Din Muhammad (1309–40). However, under his immediate successors, as a result of the plague that swept through the North and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and the North. Africa began the decline of the Mamluk power, which opened the way for the Mongols under Timur to capture Aleppo and Damascus (1401). Despite the successes of the Mong. troops, to the con. 15th century sir. the lands became the object of claims from the Ottomans, Timurids and Iran. Safavids. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were launching raids on the territories adjacent to the Red Sea, the Sultan Ottoman Empire Selim I defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Syria.
Syria until the end of the 19th century
As part of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of S. was divided into 4 vilayets with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus and Saida (several more provinces were later created, including Akka), which were governed by pashas who reported directly to the administration of the Sultan. To streamline the collection of taxes and encourage the processing of abandoned lands, special forces were issued. governments. regulations and cadastres, which at first had a beneficial effect on the development c. x-va. However, increasing tax oppression and the growing arbitrariness of local officials gradually led to stagnation in this area. This means in the regional economy. Goal began to play a role. and Brit. maritime trade. By the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut became ch. shopping centers in S. Europe. penetration into S. was carried out both through the creation of merchant houses in a number of cities. colonies, which assumed almost complete trade relations with Europe, and through an increased influx of missionaries (mainly Franciscans and Jesuits). Contacts between missionaries and local authorities, as well as the desire of Europeans. powers to establish their spheres of influence in North (the French supported the Maronites, the British - the Druze) led to a gradual stratification of the Sires. society. In this situation, separatist tendencies intensified in the provinces, which sought to become independent from the center. Ottoman government, and internecine wars. As a result of one of these conflicts, the defeated Druze moved to an isolated mountainous area southeast of Damascus, and the area itself was named. Jebel Druz (Ed-Druz, Ed-Duruz). In con. 18th century b. part south S. came under the rule of Akka Pasha Ahmed al-Jazzar. In 1798–99 French. The troops, having failed to capture Egypt, landed on Sir. coast. Al-Jazzar with the help of Britons. The fleet managed to stop the French at Akka and force the imp. Napoleon I Bonaparte to return to France.
During Tur.-Egypt. War of 1831–33 S. was conquered by Egyptian troops. pasha Muhammad Ali. He centralized the administration of the country, favored the development of trade, and the growth of the stock of cultivable lands. However, the introduction of conscription, state. Corvee labor and rising taxes caused repeated uprisings. population (1834, 1837–1838, 1840). The Ottoman Empire and the Europeans that supported it took advantage of the weakening of Egyptian power in the north. powers: in 1840 the power of the Ottoman Sultan was restored in S. At the same time, S. came under the scope of the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the sir. market for european goods, which dealt a serious blow to local production. The emerging trend in this regard towards the transition of agricultural ownership of allotments by townspeople intensified after the law of 1858, which allowed the transfer of communal lands in villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes. From ser. 19th century commodity-money relations actively developed in S. There was a specialization of the department. agricultural regions (Northern North - cotton, Hauran - grain, Damascus region - fruits), while the decomposition of subsistence farming intensified. In the last quarter 19th century in exchange for the provision of loans to the Ottoman Empire by the French. companies received numerous concessions in Syria. Franz. capital financed the construction of highways and railways (with the exception of Hijaz), modern. port facilities, organization of regular steamship services, laying telegraph lines.
In connection with the increasing intervention of the deputy. powers in economic and political life S. to the end 19th century Anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments intensified. Local Arab. The elites were also dissatisfied with Ottoman rule. Arab ideas were developed in the circles of the Syrian-Lebanese intelligentsia. nationalism. In the 1870s A society arose led by Ibrahim al-Yazici, whose goal was to fight Ottoman rule. In the 1890s. In Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, new organizations appeared that advocated S.'s independence from the Ottoman Empire.
Syria in the 1st quarter of the 20th century
Patriotic sentiments in S. intensified after Young Turk Revolution 1908. Dozens of socio-political organizations were established. newspapers and magazines created legal Arab. patriotic organizations, mass rallies and political disputes. However, it soon became obvious that the changes were limited, and the Young Turks were ready to defend their interests in the main. Turkic-speaking population. Formation of a new political culture was most noticeable among young and European-educated sires. intelligentsia. It was people from Syria (including Abd al-Kerim Qasem al-Khalil, Seif ad-Din al-Khatib, Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi) who made up the majority of the activists of the Lit. formed in 1909 in Istanbul. club. Syrians also predominated in such prominent nationalities. political organizations such as Young Arabia (1911) and the Ottoman Party adm. decentralization (1912). In 1913, they, together with the Lebanese Reform League, convened the Arab. congress However, the inability of the Arab. involve nationalists in their politics. The struggle of the broad masses of the population led to the fact that their social base remained rather narrow.
After the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I, S. was turned into a German tour base. command in the Middle East. The 4th Ottoman army was stationed there, led by A. Cemal Pasha, who headed in November. 1914 military-civilian administration and declared war in S. position. Despite the massive repressions that local Christians and Muslims were subjected to during this period. patriots (hundreds of people were executed, thrown into prison, about 10 thousand people were deported), Arab support. nationalism began to grow as a result of a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy, caused by increased taxes on the military. needs and brit. blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. As a result of massive requisitions of food and raw materials carried out by the tour. authorities, in 1915 in a number of sires. There were food riots in the cities, and a partisan movement began in the mountainous regions. In May 1915 in Damascus, an Arab. nationalists from a number of organizations (including Young Arabia and Al-Ahd) under the leadership. the son of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein - Faisal (see Faisal I), signed a protocol on the Arab-British. cooperation in the war against the Ottoman Empire and Germany, subject to the creation of a single independent Arab after the war. state On Sept. 1918 An anti-Ottoman uprising began in the Jebel Druz region, coinciding with the advance of the British towards Damascus. and French troops and Arab. army led by Faisal (entered Oct. 1918). B. Ch. S. fell under the authority of the commander of the allied forces, Brit. Field Marshal E. G. Allenby; in the west, in the coastal region. Latakia, there were French. strength. British-appointed military officer. governor in the east part of S. Faisal first tried to confirm the rights of the Hashemite dynasty to govern all the former Arabs. possessions of the Ottomans in accordance with the earlier promises of Great Britain, then insisted on the creation of a Syrian-Transjordanian state headed by himself (previously, in March 1920, according to a resolution adopted at the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, he was proclaimed the constitutional monarch of an independent Syria .). However, in April 1920 by agreement between the French. and Brit. representatives at the San Remo conference mandated the League of Nations to govern S. and Lebanon was transferred to France, and the administration of Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan to Great Britain. In July 1920, the French troops, having overcome the weapons. resistance sir. patriots occupied Damascus and established control over the entire S. Faisal was expelled from the country.
Syria during the French Mandate
During the French period Syria's mandate was divided into five autonomous regions (“states”): Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (“Alawite state”), Jebel Druz (a Druze region centered in Es-Suwayda) and Alexandretta (now Iskenderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939 ); in the extreme northeast of the country, in the vicinity of Ar-Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, a department was allocated. a district governed directly from the center; Mount Lebanon was expanded by annexing the populated region. Shiites of the Bekaa Valley and the Sunni cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida, etc. The terms of the mandate were opened by Sir. market for a free European trade. Import of cheap foreign goods dealt a huge blow, sire. textile industry (in 1913–26, the number of weavers in Aleppo decreased by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3). Franz. financial monopolies had a decisive influence on the economy. life of the country, owned by the French. capital, the Bank of Syria and Lebanon had the right to issue, transport, power plants and water pipelines belonged to the French.
All R. 1920s in S. a number of political parties, including Communist. party [founded in 1924 as a single party sire. and Lebanon. communists; actually Sire. communist party (UPC) since 1944], People's Party or Nar. party (1925), Nat. block (1927). Anti-French flared up all over the country. speeches. In 1922–23, the Druze uprising in the region was suppressed. Jebel Druz. In July 1925, a new rebellion of the Druze began, liberating the entire region in a week and defeating the 4,000-strong detachment of the generals sent against them. Michaud. In October, the leaders of the national movements organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, which was suppressed after two days of artillery. shelling of Damascus (as a result, about 5 thousand people died). Despite the brutality in the fight against the rebels, the French. the government was forced to change the forms of colonial government in Syria. In 1925, the “state of Aleppo” and the “state of Damascus” were united into the “state of Syria.” In April 1928 elections to the Constituent were held. meeting. In May 1930, the Organic Statute (constitution) was adopted in North Korea, which proclaimed it a republic (with the preservation of the French mandate). Under French The regions of Jebel Druz and Latakia remained separate from the north. In the parliamentary elections in November. 1936 victory was won by the National. block. On Dec. 1936 The new parliament elected H. Atasi as president of the country. National liberation movement in S. forced the French. authorities to enter into negotiations with the leaders of the National Party. block on the conclusion of an agreement based on the recognition of independence of S. In December. 1936 Franco-Sir was signed. a treaty that declared the sovereignty of France and did not allow French interference in its internal affairs. affairs of the country and ensuring the unity of S. (Jebel Druz and Latakia were reunited with S.). France was guaranteed the right to station and move troops, as well as create military forces. bases on the territory of North Korea. To eliminate the mandate regime and join the League of Nations, a three-year transition period was envisaged. Sire. Parliament ratified the treaty on December 27, 1936. However, the government of E. Daladier, which came to power in France in January. 1939 abandoned the agreement. In response to the protest demonstrations and strikes that began in S., the French. The administration introduced a state of emergency in the country, the High Commissioner suspended the constitution (repealed in July of the same year) and dissolved parliament (to govern the internal affairs). affairs of the country, the so-called Board of Directors).
Since the beginning of the 2nd World War in September. 1939 war was declared in S. situation, large contingents of the French are stationed on its territory. troops. After the surrender of France in June 1940, the country came under the rule of the Vichy administration; from May 1941, the airfields and transport hubs of S. were used by the Germans. troops. Due to the disruption of traditional trade relations with neighboring countries and the beginning of interruptions in the supply of food and raw materials, economic The situation and living conditions of the population deteriorated sharply. In Feb. 1941 National The bloc, headed by Sh. Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike, which lasted 2 months, forced the French. High Commissioner to dissolve the “Board of Directors” and form a Committee headed by the moderate nationalist H. al-Azem, which ruled S. until the fall of 1941. On July 8, 1941, the British joined S. troops and units " Free French" Between Couatli, the Free French administration and the British. Representatives reached an agreement, according to which new parliamentary elections were held in the country in July 1943, which brought victory to the National. bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union). According to the agreements concluded on Dec. 1943, French the mandate was cancelled, sir. the government from 1/1/1944 transferred the main adm. functions. The government of independent S. took a number of measures to strengthen its foreign policy. sovereignty of the country. In Feb. 1945 S. declared war on Germany and Japan. In March she took part in the creation Arab League. In October it was accepted as a member of the UN. However, the British continued to remain on the territory of S. and French troops. The French government agreed to withdraw troops only if S. provided it with economic power. and strategic privileges. Refusal sir. government to fulfill these demands caused clashes between the French in May 1945. troops and the population of a number of cities (Damascus, Homs, etc. came under artillery fire). In the fall of 1945, the government of S. demanded that Great Britain and France evacuate their military units, and in January. 1946 appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to make a decision on the immediate withdrawal of troops. 17.4.1946 all foreign. armed forces were withdrawn from the country.
On Dec. 1947 S. rejected the UN resolution on the division of Palestine. In May 1948, after the proclamation of the state of Israel, together with other Arabs. countries launched wars against him. actions (see Arab-Israeli wars). In the beginning. In 1949, armistice agreements were signed between the opponents, and a demilitarized zone was established between Israel and Israel.
Syria after independence
S.'s achievement of independence contributed to the revival of the national economy. economy, industrial development (mainly textile and food) production, the emergence of banks, although the role of foreign. capital (mainly French) remained significant. The beginning of the creation of state sector in the economy was initiated in 1951–1955 by the nationalization (for ransom) of a number of foreign. companies. In 1955–56, agreements were concluded with the British. by Iraq Petroleum Company and Amer. "Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company" about the deduction in favor of S. 50% of the profits they receive for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of S. In 1946, Sir. Parliament adopted a labor law that transferred labor relations to the legal plane. In 1947, a new electoral law was issued, introducing direct elections and secret voting. The situation of the peasant population during this period remained deplorable; most of them were sharecroppers and tenants. This, in particular, determined the internal politics. instability of the state. In the beginning. 1947 The peasant movement, led by A. Haurani, initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Sh. Kuatli introduced a state of emergency and limited the activities of a number of politicians. parties, which allowed the National. the party won the parliamentary elections in July 1947, and Kuatli was re-elected president. On Nov. 1948 His government, accused of incompetence and corruption, was forced to resign. By order of the chief, Gen. regiment headquarters H. al-Zaim, a state of emergency was introduced in the country, the constitution of 1930 was abolished, the activities of the political. parties are completely prohibited. In 1949, al-Zaima proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in arms. forces during the repeated war. coup led by regiment. S. Hinawi. Hinawi's desire to bring S. closer to Iraq did not find support in high-ranking army circles. On Dec. 1949 The regiment seized power. A. Shishekli, who at first tried to follow the democratic. course (the adoption of a new constitution in 1950, which declared a parliamentary form of government, the provision of broad citizens. rights and carrying out socio-economic. reforms), but already from 1951 (from July 1953 - president) established a military regime. dictatorship. Everything is political. parties, societies. organizations and parliament were dissolved, the constitution was abolished. Uprising in military units in the North. S. in February 1954, supported by people. performances in Damascus, led to the overthrow of Shishekli. The transitional government formed in March 1954, headed by H. Atasi, began to restore democracy. institutions. The 1950 constitution was returned, political activities were allowed. parties. However, thanks to the efforts of conservatives, frightened by desire Parties Arab socialist revival carry out large-scale reforms in the industrial and agricultural sectors, win the presidential elections in August. 1955 Cuatli won again.
In the beginning. 1950s S. was involved in “ cold war" All R. 1950s she joined Egypt in the fight against what was created by Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the USA and Great Britain Baghdad Pact 1955(later Organizations of the Central dialect, SENTO). In 1955–56, S. reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of the military. command and creation of a common Military. advice. The Suez crisis of 1956 further strengthened the Syrian-Egyptian relationship. communications. In Feb. 1958 S. and Egypt formed a new state - United Arab Russian Republic(OAR). On Sept. 1958 in Sir. In the UAR region, a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which provided for the confiscation from landowners. parts of the lands and their transfer to landless and land-poor peasants. In July 1961 foreign countries were nationalized. and private commercial banks and largest industrial companies. Everything is political. parties were banned. Against the backdrop of a generally unstable economy. The situation in Egypt (crop failure due to drought, supply interruptions, the desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries, etc.) began a gradual increase in population discontent. Decree of Egypt. President G. A. Nasser on the introduction of state control into S. planning and strengthening the state. sector prepared the way for a new state. coup (carried out on September 28, 1961 by S.’s military command) and S.’s withdrawal from the UAR.
The activities of the new government of M. ad-Dawalibi were aimed at gradually curtailing the economic ones proclaimed during the period of unification. and social reforms. This caused a difference. circles sir. public debate about the ways of further development of the country and the possibilities of restoring the UAR. Attempts to expand the private sector of the economy and rely on large land ownership did not receive the support of the population and led to the entry into politics. the proscenium of representatives of the middle strata of the sir. society. Their increased activity was reflected in strengthening the positions of PASV.
As a result of the war. After the coup of March 8, 1963, the PASV came to power, the government was headed by one of the right-wing leaders of S. - ad-Din Bitar (until October 1964). Under pressure from representatives of the left wing of the PASV, banks and insurance companies were nationalized in 1963, and a new law on agrarian reform was adopted, which lowered the maximum land holdings. By the summer, they convinced the government to allow the creation of nationwide trade unions and the adoption of a new labor law, according to which the role of the state in protecting workers' rights increased. In Jan. 1965 adopted the so-called Ramadan Socialist The decree that placed everything under state control means the most. sir. enterprises. Over the next 6 months, a program of further nationalization was implemented. During its implementation, social contradictions and a crisis within the PASV began to grow (moderate and right-wing Baathists, supported by A. Hafez, opposed the left, led by General S. Jadid). On Dec. In 1965, the right wing of the PASV, with the participation of Hafez, managed to eliminate the leftists from all parties. and state posts But already on February 23, 1966, the left wing of the PASV, supported by the army and trade unions, expelled the right-wing Baathists from the party and from the country. The new government put forward a broad socio-economic program. transformations. Nationalization of large industries followed. enterprises, banks, insurance companies. State The economic sector took a leading position in the country's economy (in 1967 the state sector accounted for 80–85% of industrial output).
In 1966 – beginning. 1967 Tensions increased on the Syrian-Israeli border. In June 1967, the military began. actions as a result of which part of the sir. territories, including the Golan Heights and the Quneitra area, were occupied by the Israelis. These events, as well as the inability of the authorities to ensure the restoration of the economy (a significant part of the Syrian enterprises were destroyed or damaged by Israeli air strikes) significantly undermined the government’s reputation and provoked a wave of protests. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite, which created the conditions for a new state. coup in November 1970, as a result of which the military came to power. PASV wing led by H. Assad.
Syria 1970–2011
With the coming to power of H. Assad, a development strategy was chosen (within the framework of a 5-year plan), which provided for the state. financing and control over the activities of capital-intensive enterprises at the same time. supporting trade and investment in the private sector (especially in construction and agriculture). Sire. private companies benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to the Arab world. oil-producing monarchies, from expanding ties with banks and light industry of Lebanon, from strengthening diplomatic relations. contacts and generous economics. assistance from Saudi Arabia. Arabia and Kuwait at the end. 1970s The Arab-Israeli War of 1973 showed a noticeable strengthening of Israel's defense capabilities compared to 1967. However, the use of budget funds by the ruling elite and the rapid enrichment of businessmen associated with top officials provoked accusations of corruption, which, together with the growing competition between the state. and private firms, gave impetus to the activation of various. Islamist movements that began in 1976 anti-government. campaign. In 1977–78, it resulted in a series of attacks on government facilities and the murders of prominent functionaries of S. and PASV.
After clashes between the army and rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs in the spring of 1980, the authorities made a number of concessions. At the same time, in July, a decision was made to criminalize membership in the organization Muslim Brothers. In response, in the fall, a group of influential religions. figures formed the Islamic Front to coordinate the actions of the radical opposition. The measures taken by the government are increasing wages at enterprises that are dependent on the center. authorities decreased in favor of the local administration, an increase in fiscal pressure on private companies in the manufacturing industry, monopolization in favor of the state. enterprises (including restrictions for private importers) - caused unrest in Hama in February. 1982, organized by the Muslim Brotherhood (suppressed by the army under the command of the president’s brother, R. Assad). Based on calls for the elimination of corruption, free elections to the Constituent. assembly and liberalization of the constitution, as well as criticism of H. Assad for supporting Iran in the war with Iraq (see. Iran-Iraq War), groups of the Islamic Front and other underground organizations united in the National. Union for the Liberation of Syria.
In the beginning. 1980s Due to the fall in world oil prices, export earnings decreased significantly, while military prices increased sharply. costs due to Israeli aggression in Lebanon. Under these conditions, in Jan. The 1985 PASV congress criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the state. sector and proposed to reorganize the complex system of exchange rates to reduce illegal currency trafficking and losses from black market transactions. In the spring of the same year, Prime Minister. A. R. al-Qasm began negotiations with the West. states and financial organizations to attract investment in the village. x-in and service sector. In 1986, the EEC promised S. appropriate assistance [this was realized only after Damascus supported the international operation in 1990–91. coalition against Iraq (see Kuwait crisis 1990–91)]. Multi-billion dollar subsidies and loans Arab. The monarchies of the Persian Gulf allowed for the rapid growth of the sir. economy (6% in 1990, 8% in 1991), but sharply increased the country's balance of payments deficit. Since 1987, the government has stepped up support for private enterprise and continued the policy of rapprochement with the West (including the settlement of Syrian-Israeli relations). Relations with Jordan improved, on the border with which a free trade zone opened in 2000.
In Feb. 1999 H. Assad was re-elected president (99.9% of the votes in the referendum). But given his advanced age, The issue became the question of a successor: after the removal of R. Assad from the post of vice president, B. Assad became the likely successor to the head of state. In the July 2000 elections (after the death of the president in June), B. Assad took over his father’s post and received the support of 97.3% of the votes.
The new head of S. declared his intention to reach a settlement with Israel subject to the withdrawal of its weapons. forces to the borders in 1967, and in 2002 announced readiness without preliminary. restrictions to resume peace negotiations from the point at which his predecessor broke them off. While taking steps towards rapprochement with Iraq, Assad at the same time sought to expand his base. influence in Lebanon went strategic. partnership with Shiite radicals from Hezbollah. In 2003, S. sharply condemned Iraq. NATO campaign, for which she was accused of supporting terrorism and harboring accomplices of Saddam Hussein, which was followed by sanctions from the United States. In October of the same year, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), after the Islamic Jihad terrorist attack in Haifa, carried out an airstrike on camps in the vicinity of Damascus (occupied, according to the Israeli version, by Palestinian radicals, and according to the Syrian version, by refugees). The issue of sanctions against S. escalated in February. 2005 after the explosion of a car in Beirut. Lebanon Prime Minister R. al-Hariri: accusations were made against Damascus, which allegedly sought to destabilize the situation before the parliamentary elections in Lebanon, after September. 2004 The UN called for the withdrawal of Sir. armies from the country (in March 2005, the armed forces of S. implemented the corresponding resolution). In the spring of 2007, presidential elections were held, in which the only candidate, B. Assad, won.
Civil war in Syria
In March 2011, unrest began in Daraa (on the border with Jordan) under anti-corruption slogans, which, after their harsh suppression, continued under new slogans (trial of those responsible for the violence, release of political prisoners, resignation of the governor). The unrest that spread throughout Daraa later spread to other areas (Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama, and some suburbs of Damascus). By April, the confrontation in the south of the North had reached its maximum. incandescence The opposition accused the government of suppressing a protest with hundreds of peaceful victims, the government accused the opposition of extremism and massacres of military personnel. security forces and agencies. Against this background, B. Assad announced a political reforms: the abolition of the state of emergency that had been in force since 1963, the creation of a social assistance fund for the poor, the reduction of conscription military service, and an increase in wages. A commission to investigate the events in Daraa was established, the governor was dismissed, and more than 300 political prisoners were released from prison. However, this did not lead to calm; on the contrary, opposition protests increasingly took the form of weapons. confrontation.
In Feb. In 2012, a new draft constitution was submitted to a referendum, according to which PASV was deprived of its leading and directing status and was obliged to participate in elections on an equal basis with other parties. In May, at the first multi-party parliamentary elections, the National bloc received a majority. unity”, which included PASV and Progressive National. front. Independent parties also entered the parliament (including the opposition “Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes” and regional associations). Soon, more than 100 civilians were killed in Al-Hul under unclear circumstances. The authorities blamed opposition provocateurs. The next presidential elections in June 2014 were held in factual conditions. citizen war: according to official According to data, 88.7% of voters voted for B. Assad, but the West, in particular the United States, refused to recognize the voting results. Part of the territory of S. came under the control of various. paramilitary organizations (terrorist Islamic State in the east, the Islamic Front and the al-Nusra Front in the west, the Syrian National Coalition and the Free Army of Syria in the south, Kurdish militias in the north).
At the initiative of the United States, at the NATO summit on September 4–5, 2014, an international coalition against terrorism organization "Islamic State". On September 23, 2014, the US Armed Forces began carrying out air strikes on the positions of the “Islamic State” on the territory of the North. Saud joined the US operation. Arabia, UAE, Jordan; Qatar and Bahrain provided military assistance. 15.3.2015 Turkey gave permission to the United States to use the Incirlik Air Force Base to host Americans. combat unmanned aerial vehicles. From 30.9.2015 according to official B. Assad's request for ground air support. military forces in the fight against the “Islamic State” the military began. Russian operation in St.
Diplomatic Relations between the USSR and S. were established in July 1944. Russian-Sir. Relations are traditionally friendly. Their foundation was laid during the period of close cooperation between the USSR and Slovakia. Relations between Russia and Slovakia are based on the mutual trust of the countries and the general mood of their citizens. In 2005, 2006 and 2008, B. Assad visited Russia. In May 2010, V.V. Putin’s first visit to Damascus in the history of bilateral relations took place. Political Recent interaction has focused on issues of internal Syrian settlement.
Farm
S. is a country of medium economic level. development among the countries of the South-West. Asia. GDP volume is 107.6 billion dollars (2011, at purchasing power parity); based on GDP per capita $5,100. Human development index 0.658 (2013; 119th place among 187 countries).
The basis of the economy - p. farming, fuel industry and trade. In the beginning. 21st century government reforms were aimed at creating a socially oriented market economy under the state. regulation of such areas as finance, energy, railways. and aviation transport. Steps were taken to liberalize the economy, intensify the activities of the private sector, and attract foreigners. investments, etc. So. Damage to the economy (especially in cities) was caused by the war that began in 2011. conflict between governments. troops and rebel groups. The state has grown. debt, economic growth rates have decreased. growth, inflation accelerated, etc.; industrial area was significantly destroyed. infrastructure (the oil industry was hit the hardest). By 2015 it will be destroyed. international promotions terrorist organizations (“Islamic State” and others) disorganized farms. communications, brought the country's economy to the brink of collapse.
In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector is 60.2%, industry – 22.2%, agriculture, forestry and fishing – 17.6% (2013, estimate).
Industry
The most developed (before the escalation of the armed conflict in mid-2012) industrial sectors: oil and natural gas production and processing, electric power, chemical, construction materials, food and textile.
Oil production 8.2 million tons (2012, estimate; 19.2 million tons in 2010); basic production areas are located in the northeast (including the Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan fields; all in the Al-Hasakah governorate) and in the east of the country (including the Omar, Tanak, El-Ward and other fields in the governorate Deir ez-Zor). The largest refineries are in the cities of Baniyas (installed capacity 6.6 million tons of crude oil per year; Tartus governorate) and Homs (5.3 million tons). The leading company is Al Furat Petroleum (jointly owned by the state-owned General Petroleum Corporation and several foreign companies).
Natural gas production 16.6 billion m3 (2012, estimate); basic deposits – Al-Dubayat and Al-Arak (Homs governorate). Gas processing plants - in the city of Deir ez-Zor (installed capacity of about 4.8 million m 3 per year), as well as near the Omar field (2.4 million m 3), the city of Tadmor (2.2 million m 3, Homs governorate), etc.
Electricity production approx. 44 billion kWh (2010); including at thermal power plants - 94% (the largest is Aleppo, capacity 1065 MW; in Jibrin, Aleppo governorate), at hydroelectric power stations - 6% (the largest is Tabqa on the Euphrates River, capacity 800 MW; near the city . Er-Raqqa).
Ferrous metallurgy is represented by steel smelting (10 thousand tons in 2012, estimate; 70 thousand tons in 2011) and production (mainly based on imported raw materials and semi-finished products) of rolled steel and billets (approx. 130 thousand tons in 2012 , estimate; 890 thousand tons in 2011; factories in the cities of Latakia, Aleppo, etc.).
Mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and the electronic industry depend on the supply of components from abroad. Among the enterprises are automobile assembly plants in the cities of Adra (Rif Dimashq governorate) and Hisya (Homs governorate).
Phosphates are mined (1.5 million tons in 2012, estimate; 3.5 million tons in 2011; the main deposits are Alsharqiya and Kneifis, west of Tadmor; most of the products are exported), rock salt, etc. Among the chemical enterprises industry - factories for the production of minerals. fertilizers, sulfur (as a by-product of oil and natural gas refining), sulfuric acid, ammonia, phosphoric acid, plastics, cosmetics, paint and varnish products, detergents, polymer materials, etc. S. is one of the leading Arab. pharmaceutical production countries drugs. In the beginning. 2010s St. acted in S. 50 pharmaceutical companies (approx. 17 thousand employees; main centers - Aleppo and Damascus), providing approx. 90% national medication needs.
The construction materials industry is developed. Production (million tons, 2012, estimate): dolomite 21.2, volcanic tuff 0.5, gypsum 0.3, etc. Production: cement 4 million tons; asphalt 13 thousand tons (2012, estimate; 157 thousand tons in 2010; in the cities of Deir ez-Zor, Kafriya, Latakia governorate, etc.).
The textile industry has traditionally been of great importance (among the centers are Aleppo and Damascus). The industry is represented by cotton ginning. factories, silk spinning factories (main center - Latakia), production of wool and cotton yarn, fabrics, ready-made clothing, etc. The leather and footwear industry specializes in the production of shoes, belts, bags, jackets, etc. Food-flavoring industry (including sugar, oil, tobacco, production of canned vegetables and fruits, drinks). Traditions are widespread. handicrafts: carpet weaving, production of various. artist metal products (including Damascus sabers and knives, copper products), silver and gold jewelry, fabrics (Damascus brocade), furniture (including mahogany, inlaid, painted and carved), etc. .
Agriculture
One of the chapters industries national economy. In the structure of agricultural of land out of 13.9 million hectares, pastures account for 8.2 million hectares, arable land - 4.7 million hectares, perennial plantings - 1.0 million hectares (2011). In the beginning. 2010s the industry satisfied its own. S.'s food needs and provided the light and food processing industries with raw materials.
Crop farming (about 65% of the value of agricultural products) develops on a narrow coastal strip (fruits, olives, tobacco, and cotton are grown on fertile soils in high moisture conditions), as well as in the valleys of the El Asi and Euphrates rivers; Rain-fed (wheat, barley, etc.) and irrigated (including cotton) agriculture is widespread between Damascus and Aleppo, as well as along the border with Turkey. Grown (harvest, million tons in 2012, estimate): wheat 3.6, olives 1.0, tomatoes 0.8, potatoes 0.7, barley 0.7, oranges 0.5, watermelons 0.4, apples 0 ,3, other vegetables and fruits, almonds, pistachios, spices, figs, etc. Viticulture. Ch. technical crops - cotton (raw cotton harvest 359.0 thousand tons, 2012, estimate; main sample in the north of the country) and sugar beets (1027.9 thousand tons).
Livestock farming (about 35% of the value of agricultural products) is extensive; in semi-desert areas it is nomadic and semi-nomadic. Livestock (million heads, 2013, estimate): poultry 21.7, sheep 14.0, goats 2.0, cattle 0.8. Donkeys, camels, horses and mules are also bred. Production (thousand tons, 2012, estimate): milk 2446.0, meat 382.0, wool 22.0; eggs 2457.8 million pcs. Beekeeping. Sericulture (in the Orontes River valley). Fishing (in coastal waters; catch approx. 12 thousand tons per year).
Services sector
The financial system is regulated by the Central Bank of S. (in Damascus) and is represented by several state. (the largest is the Commercial Bank of S., in Damascus) and small private ones (emerged in the early 2000s as part of reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy) commercial banks. banks, there are also international branches. banks (including the National Bank of Qatar). Stock exchange in Damascus (the only one in the country). Foreign tourism (mainly cultural and educational); in 2011 S. visited approx. 2.3 million people (including from Turkey - over 56%).
Transport
Basic mode of transport – automobile. The densest road network is in the west. parts of the country; the total length of roads is 74.3 thousand km (including 66.1 thousand km with hard surface, 2012). Ch. highways (Daraa/border with Jordan - Damascus - Homs - Aleppo, etc.) connect the main. settlements, and also serve for the transit of goods to Turkey and Europe. countries. The total length of railways is 2.8 thousand km (2012). Basic lines: Damascus – Homs – Hama – Aleppo – Maidan Iqbes/border with Turkey; Aleppo – Latakia – Tarsus – Homs; Homs - Palmyra (transportation of phosphorites from deposits near Tadmor to the port of Tartus); Aleppo - Ar-Raqqa - Qamishli / border with Turkey. Intl. airports - in Damascus (the largest in the country), Aleppo, Latakia. Ch. mor. ports: Latakia (freight turnover of about 3.0 million tons in the early 2010s; export of container cargo, import of food, machinery and equipment, textiles, chemicals, etc.) and Tartus (2.0; export of phosphorites ; import of various metals, building materials, food products). The country has an extensive network of oil pipelines connecting fields with terminals at sea. ports (Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus) and refineries, as well as those serving for transit pumping of oil from Iraq and Saud. Arabia. Oil product pipelines run from Homs and Baniyas to Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia. Gas pipelines from fields in the east and center of the north reach Aleppo (further to Turkey) and Homs (further to Tartus and Baniyas); The section of the Pan-Arab gas pipeline (via Damascus and Homs) transports natural gas from Egypt to the port of Baniyas.
International trade
The volume of foreign trade turnover is 11,592 million dollars (2013, estimate), including exports of 2,675 million dollars, imports of 8,917 million dollars (the ongoing crisis in the country led to a significant reduction in volumes; in 2012, the volume of exports amounted to 3,876 million dollars, imports - 10,780 million dollars). Exports are dominated by oil and petroleum products (over 1/3 cost), agricultural products (cotton, diff. vegetables and fruits, wheat, live cattle, meat, wool), consumer goods. Ch. buyers (% of value, 2012 estimate): Iraq 58.4, Saud. Arabia 9.7, Kuwait 6.4. Imported are machinery and equipment, food, metals and products made from them, miscellaneous. chemicals, etc. Ch. suppliers (% of cost): Saudi. Arabia 22.8, UAE 11.2, Iran 8.3.
Armed forces
Armed forces (AF) number 178 thousand people. (all data for 2014) and consist of the Ground Forces (ground forces), air force and air defense, and navy. Military officer formations – up to 100 thousand people. (of which about 8 thousand are in the gendarmerie). Reserve approx. 300 thousand people, including in the North – 275 thousand people. Military annual budget is 2.2 billion dollars. In connection with the active hostilities taking place on the territory of S. since 2015, the numerical strength of its armed forces is undergoing significant changes. changes.
The Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces is the president of the country, who determines the basic. directions of military-political course S. and exercises leadership of the Armed Forces through the Defense Ministry and the General Staff. Subordinate to him are the Chief of the General Staff (also the commander of the Ground Forces), commanders of the branches of the Armed Forces and some of the center. MO management.
Direct command of the troops is entrusted to the commanders of the armed forces. Most formations and units are below their normal strength.
NE (110 thousand people) – main. type of aircraft. Organizationally, they are consolidated into 3 army corps headquarters, 12 divisions, 13 departments. brigades, 11 departments special regiments appointments. Reserve: tank division headquarters, 4 tank brigades, regiments (31 infantry, 3 artillery, 2 tank). The SV is armed with St. 94 PU operational-tactical. and tactful. missiles, 6 anti-ship missile launchers, 4950 tanks (including 1200 in repair and storage), 590 armored personnel carriers, approx. 2450 infantry fighting vehicles, 1500 armored personnel carriers, St. 3440 field artillery guns (including 2030 towed and 430 self-propelled), approx. 4400 PU ATGM, up to 500 MLRS, St. 410 mortars, 84 air defense systems, more than 4000 MANPADS, 2050 anti-aircraft artillery guns, several. unmanned aircraft, etc.
The Air Force and Air Defense (approx. 56 thousand people) have combat and auxiliary personnel. aviation, as well as air defense forces and means. Basic administrative body and operational control of Air Force units is the headquarters, and in the Air Defense Forces - the department. command; The aviation forces are subordinate to them. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with 20 bombers, 130 fighter-bombers, 310 fighters, 14 reconnaissance, 31 combat training and 25 military transport aircraft, 80 combat and 110 transport helicopters. Airplanes and helicopters mainly obsolete types, ch. arr. MiG-21. The airfield network of the North includes more than 100 airfields, and for the basing of modern. Only 21 airfields are suitable for aircraft. The main ones are: Abu ad-Duhur, Aleppo, Bley, Damascus, Dumayr, En-Nasiriya, Seikal, Tifor. Reinforced concrete has been constructed at all military aviation base airfields. shelters for airplanes. Air defense units are represented by 2 divisions, 25 anti-aircraft missile brigades, radio engineering units. troops. They are armed with approx. 750 PU SAM, approx. 2000 anti-aircraft artillery guns of calibers from 23 to 100 mm.
The Navy (5 thousand people) consists of the fleet, naval aviation, coast guard and defense units, logistics institutions and educational institutions. The ship's composition includes 2 small anti-submarine ships, 16 missile boats, 3 landing ships, 8 minesweepers, 2 hydrographic ships. ships, training ship. Coast Guard and Defense includes infantry. brigade, 12 batteries of anti-ship missile systems P-5 and P-15, 2 art. division (36 130 mm and 12 100 mm guns), coastal observation battalion. The fleet aviation is armed with 13 helicopters. Based in Latakia, Tartus.
Private and non-commissioned officers are trained in schools, officers - in the military. academies and abroad. Regular armed forces are recruited by males aged 19–40 years, service life is 30 months. Mobilization resources 5.1 million people, including those fit for military service. service 3.2 million people. One of the priority areas of the military. construction of military-political S.'s management considers deliveries to all types of modern aircraft. military samples equipment and weapons, ch. arr. from abroad. Great efforts are being made to obtain licenses and organize their production within the country.
Healthcare
In S. per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 150 doctors, 186 persons cf. honey. staff and midwives (2012); 15 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants. (2010). Total expenditure on health care is 3.4% of GDP (budget financing - 46.1%, private sector - 53.9%) (2012). Legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by the Constitution (1973) and the law on psychiatric care. assistance (2007). State healthcare is free. In war conditions. conflict, it needs to be restored as a structure and medical services. care and health care management systems. The most common infections are tuberculosis and polio (2012). Basic causes of death: injuries and other external factors, malnutrition, tuberculosis (2014).
Sport
National the Olympic Committee was founded in 1947 and recognized by the IOC in 1948. In the same year, S. athletes made their debut at the Olympic Games in London; subsequently participated in 11 Olympic Games (1968, 1972, 1980–2014) dept. team and in Rome (1960) as part of the United Arab team. Republic. The first Olympic award (silver medal) was won by J. Atiya (Los Angeles, 1984) in the freestyle wrestling competition in the weight category up to 100 kg. At the Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), multiple record holder S. in various. types of athletics and the winner of the World Championship (1995, heptathlon) G. Shuaa won a gold medal in the heptathlon. The bronze Olympic award (Athens, 2004) was awarded to boxer N. al-Shami in the weight category up to 91 kg. Since 1978 sire. athletes participate in the Asian Games (except 1986); 9 gold, 8 silver and 14 bronze medals were won (as of December 1, 2015). Twice Damascus was the capital of the Pan-Arab Games (1976, 1992), sir. the athletes won the team competition. The most popular sports in the country: football, basketball, gymnastics, tennis, weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, swimming, track and field. Since 1972, the men's national team periodically takes part in the World Chess Olympiads.
Education. Scientific and cultural institutions
Management of education institutions are carried out by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Muslim educational institutions are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Waqf Affairs. Basic regulatory documents: Decree on the Elimination of Illiteracy (1972), laws - obligatory. education (1981), about the activities of the universities (2006); resolutions of the Ministry of Education - on preschool education (1989, 1991), on prof. education (2000). The education system includes preschool education (paid), compulsory free 6-year primary education, secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education, secondary vocational education. education (main education based on incomplete secondary school; course up to 3 years), higher education. There is a Center for Vocational and Technical Sciences. education in Aleppo (created in the 1970s with the help of the USSR). On the basis of complete secondary school and secondary vocational training. educational institutions offer 2-year technical training. in-you, which give prof. advanced education. In 2013, 5.3% of children were enrolled in preschool education, 74.2% in primary education, and 44.1% in secondary education. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 96.4% (2015, data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Largest universities, ch. scientific institutions, libraries and museums are located in Damascus, Latakia, Aleppo and Homs.
Mass media
Daily newspapers are published in Arabic. language (all - Damascus): “Al-Baath” (“Renaissance”, since 1948, organ of PASV; circulation about 65 thousand copies), “Al-Saura” (“Revolution”, since 1963; about 55 thousand copies), “Tishrin” (“October”, since 1975; about 70 thousand copies), “Al-Watan” (“Motherland”, since 2006; about 22 thousand copies), “Nidal al-Shaab" ("Struggle of the People", since 1934; organ of the Central Committee of the Syrian Communist Party). In English. language daily gas comes out. “Syria Times” (Damascus; since 1981; about 12 thousand copies). Weeklies are published in Arabic. language (all from Damascus): “Nidal al-Fillahin” (“Struggle of the Peasants”, since 1965, organ of the General Federation of Peasants of Syria; about 25 thousand copies), “Kifah al-Ummal al-Ishtiraki” (“Socialist . workers' struggle", since 1966, organ of the General Federation of Trade Unions of Syria; about 30 thousand copies). Radio broadcasting since 1946 (carried out by the government service "Directorate-General of Broadcasting and Television"; Damascus), broadcasting television programs since 1960 (government commercial service "Syrian Television"; Damascus). Govt. Sire. Arab. information agency (“Syrian Arab News Agency”; SANA) has been operating since 1966 (founded in 1965, Damascus).
Literature
Literature sir. people are developing into Arabic. language On the territory of the North in the 1st century. n. e. there was a sire. the language in which the literature was created. works (see Syrian literature) and which in the 14th century. The Arab was completely ousted. tongue. Middle-century liter S. – part Arab-Muslim culture. In the 19th century in North, which then also included the territories of Lebanon and Palestine, the period of enlightenment began; the desire to renew literature is inherent in the work of Adib Ishak (the story “Joys for Lovers and Delights for the Nights,” 1874; collected essay “Pearls,” 1909; numerous translations of Western literature). The founders, sire. A. Kh. al-Kabbani and I. Farah became the theater's directors (historical dramas "Cleopatra", 1888; "The Greed of Women", 1889). At the origins of the new sire. prose - the work of F. Marrash (books “The Forest of Law”, 1866, “Travel to Paris”, 1867; the story “Pearls from Shells”, 1872; etc.). An important milestone in the development of sir. prose became works created in the traditions of maqama, but dedicated to pressing problems of sir. societies: N. al-Kasatli, Sh. al-Asali, M. al-Saqal, R. Rizka Sallum (“Diseases of the New Century”, 1909). Patriotic The theme distinguishes tradition. poetic in form. creativity of M. al-Bism, H. ad-Din al-Zarqali, H. Mardam-bek. In the 1920s–50s. Romanticism dominated in S.'s literature, most vividly embodied in the poetry of Sh. Jabri, A. al-Nasir, B. al-Jabal, O. Abu Risha, W. al-Kurunfuli, A. al-Attar, as well as prose by S. Abu Ghanim (collection of stories “Songs of the Night”, 1922), S. al-Kayali (collection “Storm and Light”, 1947), N. al-Ikhtiyar (story “The Return of Christ”, 1930). The emergence of the historical novel - the first major prose novel. genre in S. literature, associated with M. al-Arnaut (novels “The Lord of the Quraysh,” 1929; “Virgin Fatima,” 1942; etc.). Novels in modern times The themes “Greed” (1937), “Fate Plays” (1939), “Rainbow” (1946) are created by Sh. al-Jabiri.
Since the 1930s realism began to take hold, vividly represented by the short stories of A. Khulka (collection “Spring and Autumn”, 1931), M. an-Najjar (collection “In the Palaces of Damascus”, 1937), F. al-Shayib, V. Sakkakini, A. al-Salyama al-Ujayli (collection “The Witch’s Daughter”, 1948), etc. The genre of social comedy took shape in dramaturgy (M. al-Sibai), plays appeared in historical. and legendary stories (A. Mardam-bek, A. Suleiman al-Ahmed, Z. Mirza, O. Abu Risha, etc.). Realism remained the leading trend in prose in the 1950s–60s, addressing complex social problems: M. al-Kayali, H. al-Kayali, S. al-Sharif, Sh. Baghdadi, S. Khauraniya, F. as -Sibai, H. Mina, M. Safadi, H. al-Kayali (novel “Love Letters”, 1956), H. Barakat (novel “Green Peaks”, 1956), A. al-Ujayli (novel “Bashima in Tears”, 1959), etc. “Women’s” prose received the form, represented by the names of S. al-Haffar al-Kuzbari (autobiographical novel “The Diaries of Hala,” 1950), K. al-Khuri (novel “Days Spent with Him,” 1959). In psychology prose of Z. Tamer, marked stylistically. grace, the influence of Europe is noticeable. modernist literature. Existential issues dominated the short stories of the 1960s–1970s: collections of stories by J. Salem (“Poor People,” 1964), H. Haidar (“Wild Goats,” 1978), V. Ikhlasi and others.
In the 1960s “new poetry”, marked by metrical-rhythmic, developed. experiments: N. Kabbani, A. al-Nasir, O. al-Muyassar, H. ad-Din al-Asadi; The work of Adonis gained wide popularity. Romanticization of the past, appeal to mythological. the material is characterized by a rich philosophy. reflections on the dramaturgy of H. Hindawi, M. Haj Hussein S. al-Isa, A. Mardam Beg, O. al-Nas, M. al-Safadi; social themes distinguish the plays of M. al-Sibai and H. al-Kayali (“Knocking on the Door,” 1964; “The Carpenter’s Daughter,” 1968). The creators of the “political theater” were S. Wannus and M. al-Hallaj (the play “Dervishes are looking for the truth”, 1970). Events Arab-Israeli wars found a vivid embodiment in the prose of the 1970–90s, in particular in the works of A. Abu Shanab, A. Orsan (story “Golan Heights”, 1982), I. Luka, N. Said, etc.; they were presented in a modernist vein by M. Yusuf (collection of stories “Faces of the Late Night,” 1974). The novel developed predominantly. in realistic. spirit, gravitating towards panoramic, epic. depiction of human destinies and events (H. Mina, F. Zarzur, I. Masalima, K. Kilyani, A. Nahvi, A. al-Salam al-Ujayli, S. Dikhni, Y. Rifaiya, H. al-Zahabi, A Y. Daud and others). Prose con. 20 – beginning 21st centuries dedicated to the preem. socio-political and patriotic subject; Among its most prominent representatives are H. al-Zahabi, M. al-Khani, Y. Rifaiya, G. al-Samman (novels “Masquerade of the Dead,” 2003; N. Suleiman (novel “Forbidden Souls,” 2012).
Architecture and fine arts
In historical In the past, the territory of S. belonged to different cultural zones and was influenced by many. civilizations: Sumerian-Akkadian and Babylonian-Assyrian, Hittite and Hurrian, ancient Egypt, Aegean and Greco-Roman; south S. was closely connected with the complex of cultures of Arabia. In the 3rd century. BC e. – 3rd century n. e. S. became the area of contact between the ancient and Parthian traditions, in the 4th–7th centuries. – Byzantine. and Iranian-Sasanian. This versatility of ancient art. S.'s culture determined its originality, the formation of original schools of architecture, and depicted. and decorative and applied arts.
The most ancient architects. S.'s monuments date back to the 10th–7th millennium BC. e. (Mureibit II, III, c. 9800–8600 BC; Tell Aswad, c. 8700–7000 BC). Among the archaeological finds - “idols” made of limestone, stone and clay figurines of people and animals, clay vessels, baskets, beads made of shells, bones and pebbles. In the settlements of the east. parts of the Northern territory, rectangular 3–4-room houses made of mud brick, with whitewashed walls, sometimes painted with red liquid clay (Bukras, ca. 7400–6200 BC), also stone and terracotta figurines, vessels made of alabaster and marble (Tell Ramad, c. 8200–7800). In the settlements of the 6th millennium BC. e. polished pottery is found, sometimes with incised or stamped ornaments, in the eastern. regions - ceramics from the Samarra culture (Baghuz, Middle Euphrates). In the north-east S. in complexes of the 5th millennium BC. e. terracotta female figurines with a conical “hairstyle” and painted eyes were found (Tell Halaf); in the Palanli cave (north S.) - animal drawings close to the Halaf ceramics style. Eneolithic settlements of the north and north-east parts of the Northern territory had a double line of walls with towers and gates, paved streets, a network of water conduits, gardens, temples, and administration. buildings, multi-room rectangular houses with a center plan. hall and internal courtyard (Habuba-Kabira, c. 3500–3300 BC). Hundreds of “big-eyed idols” (figures made of alabaster with double rings at the top) were inserted into the lime mortar of the mud brick walls of the “Temple of the Eye” (c. 3500–3300 BC) at Tell Brak; the facades were decorated with clay cones and copper plates and gold. From the 2nd half. 4th millennium BC e. artists were created. products made of copper, gold, silver, stone and ceramics. vessels, stone and bone amulets in the form of animals, figurines of people, cylindrical. seals with reliefs (Habuba-Kabira, Jebel Aruda).
) S. The cities had massive walls (in the western regions of stone, in the eastern - of brick), regularly paved streets, houses with courtyards, wells, baths, sewers and a family crypt-treasury. The fortified palaces included complexes of rectangular buildings of various types. appointments grouped around yards of different sizes; Ch. the rooms stood out for their size and richness of decoration (the palace of King Zimri-Lim in Mari, 18th century BC; the royal palace in Ugarit, c. 1400 BC). The walled temples included a courtyard with an altar, an entrance hall and a cella with a dedicatory area. steles and statues of gods. In northern architecture S. in con. 2nd millennium BC e. a type of Syro-Hittite temple and/or bit-hilani palace (Kapara palace-temple in Tell Halaf) developed.Bronze Age works of art demonstrate a variety of stylistic orientations. Finds in Mari (fragments of paintings, statues, reliefs, etc.) indicate the development of a local version of Mesopotamian depictions. claim, departing from the Old Babylonian canon. Works by Ebla illustrate the process of adaptation and processing of the East. and zap. artist traditions. The sculpture is reminiscent of Sumerian in style and iconography, but with more careful attention to detail. The archaic roughness of the enlarged forms of mythological images. creatures akin to the plastic arts of the Hittites; jewelry with elegance and style. The variety is reminiscent of the products of Ugarit, where most of them come from. monuments of art from S. ser. 2nd millennium BC e. Gold dishes and bowls with chased and engraved reliefs, ivory sculpture inlaid with silver, copper, emerald, glassware, weapons, painted ceramics, etc., partly imported or oriented to Mycenaean or Egyptian. samples, mainly demonstrate Ugaritic style with organic. a synthesis of Eastern Mediterranean, Aegean and Syro-Mesopotamian traditions.
The invasions of the Sea Peoples and the expansion of Assyria led to the destruction of many. cities and fundamental changes in art. traditions of S. In the 9th century. BC e. all in. S. Assyrian adm. arise. and artist centers - for example, Til-Barsib (Aramaic Bit-Adini on the Euphrates, now Tell Ahmar) with a palace decorated with monumental stone steles with cult reliefs and wall paintings, anticipating the style of art of Assyria in its heyday; Arslan-Tash - Aramaic and Assyrian. city in the north border of S. (statues, bas-reliefs depicting people and animals, ivory plates with carved Egyptian symbols, scenes and images of the Aegean-Mediterranean circle, 9–8 centuries BC). In the north and northeast of the country at the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. one of the syncretistic variants was formed. Syro-Hittite art, distinguished by the fusion of Hurrian and Hittite features in iconography and the style of archaic, crude images.
Damascus) cities received a regular street layout according to hippodamian system and were fortified with powerful stone walls and a citadel. In the Hellenistic ensemble. cities, along with Greek temples. and local deities, theatres, stadiums, palaestras, meeting houses, agora, etc. occupied an important place. The design and image of the buildings was determined by architectural order. From Rome time, the majestic ruins of Apamea and Palmyra have been preserved (almost destroyed by the so-called Islamic state in 2015). Basic highways (Roman cardo and decumanus), with tetrapylons (Laodicea) at crossroads, often lined with colonnades and porticos, connected ch. mountains gate. In the design of colonnaded streets and communities. buildings, villas, triumphal arches and columns, an important role was given to statues, reliefs, paintings and floor mosaics. Each city had its own characteristics: Philippopolis (now Shahba) in the south. S. is planned according to the Roman type. military camps; Palmyra had a 3-span monumental arch, masking the turn of the processional road to the sanctuary of Bel, etc. The original schools will be depicted. The art of ancient synagogue developed in Philippopolis (floor mosaics), Palmyra (painting and sculpture), and in Dura-Europos (paintings combining features of Parthian-Iranian, Syro-Mesopotamian and Hellenistic art; some frescoes of the synagogue anticipate the style early Byzantine painting).All in. S., among the ruins of abandoned agricultural farms. centers 4th – 1st third of 7th centuries. (“dead cities”), monuments of late antique and early Byzantine culture have been preserved: Sergilla (4th–5th centuries; remains of city walls, a church, a complex of baths, a dairy, residential buildings, etc.), al-Bara (4–6 centuries; churches, 2 pyramidal tombs with sarcophagi), etc. S. Byzantine architecture. time are distinguished by the severity of forms and restraint of decoration (mon. Kal'at-Sim'an, 5th century). Political and ideological differences prevented the formation of a unified regional architecture. type of temple. In general, the religious architecture of Christian S. evolved from a simple hall church (Kirk-Bizet, 4th century) to large 3-nave church basilicas with a gable roof on wood. rafters or stone vaults (at Kalb Luzech, 4th–5th centuries; church at Brad, 395–402). In the 6th century. domed basilicas, prototypes of cross-domed temples (the church “outside the walls” in Rusafa, 569–582), baptisteries, martyriums, fortified monasteries with bastion towers (on the site of the early Islamic castle Qasr al-Khair East, 728–729) and castles-palaces ( Qasr-ibn-Wardan, 2nd floor 6th century). Marble cladding, mosaic floors, subject paintings, stucco, stone and wood were widely used to decorate the interiors of palaces and temples. carvings, gilding, woven draperies, bronze and silver utensils, furniture. Floor mosaics of Bosra (now Busra al-Sham), Apamea, Hama, rare works of sculpture, the increasing role of ornament mark a turn to the conventional pictorial and decorative form, the language of symbols inherent early Christian art, as well as Hellenized artists. schemes and motives. Works of applied art (silver and gold vessels with chasing and engraving, crosses, figured lamps, patterned silk fabrics, etc.) are distinguished by a combination of early Byzantine and local traditions. After the Muslims. During the conquest of S., the art of Christians existed in monasteries (frescoes of the monastery of Deir Mar Musa, 12th century).
Syro-Byzantine art. the school played a crucial role in the formation of early Islamic culture, especially in the Umayyad era, when the cities of S. generally retained their Roman-Byzantine appearance. During the reconstruction of old buildings, a Muslim center was formed. cities with a cathedral mosque ( Umayyad mosque in Damascus) and the palace adm. complex - Dar al-Imara (Damascus, Hama, Aleppo). In the 1st half. 8th century construction of remote residences and estates – “desert castles” – began; at the basis of their layout one can guess the Roman scheme. fort and byzantium. fortified monastery. The formation of a new artist. concept - an abstract worldview, which later led to the predominant development of calligraphy and ornament - manifested itself in the design of religious and palace buildings (architectural landscapes of smalt mosaics of the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, c. 715). Surviving examples of monumental painting, sculpture and ornamental decoration demonstrate a complex interweaving of ancient, early Byzantine, Syro-Mesopotamian and Iranian styles. Sasanian traditions (floor frescoes and stuk sculpture from the “desert castle” of Qasr al-Khair Western, 727).
With the Abbasids moving the center of the Caliphate to Iraq, new cities began to be built in the Mesopotamian part of Syria ( Er-Rak ka, founded in 772 on the model of "Madinat al-Salam", see Baghdad). By the 12th–13th centuries. S. cities acquired the Middle Ages. view. Large construction took place in Damascus and Aleppo. Inside the walls with massive entrance gates and watchtowers, the cities were divided into separate ones according to religion. and craft-based residential areas with religious buildings, markets, and societies. bathhouse The city center was grouped around or near the citadel. A feature of S.'s architecture has become cultic and charitable. complexes: rectangular in plan, 2–3-story building with a center. courtyard with ivans on the main axes and a pool in the center, which united a madrasah, maristan (medical hospital) or ribat or taqiya (abode of Sufis) with a prayer house and tomb of the founder (mosque-madrasah-ribat al-Firdaus, 1235, Aleppo). A special place in the Middle Ages. architecture of the north-west S. is occupied by crusader castles, combining the traditions of early Byzantine, late Romanesque, and early Gothic architecture ( Krak des Chevaliers, Margat, both – 12th–13th centuries, Arabic in place. fortresses of the 11th century). During the Mamluk era, northern trade and craft centers (Damascus, Aleppo) expanded greatly.
It will depict blossoming. claim of the Middle Ages. S. coincided with the era of the Ayyubids and Mamluks. Book miniatures in manuscripts collection. fables “Kalila and Dimna” (1220, National Library, Paris; 1354, Bodley Library, Oxford), picaresque short stories “Maqama” by al-Hariri (1222, National Library, Paris), works by al-Hariri Mubashshira about the philosophers of antiquity (early 13th century, Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul) shows several directions: colorful, naively plausible, expressive and humorous scenes. intonation; more refined and complicated compositions; works reminiscent of the Middle Ages. mosaic or Byzantine-influenced. writing manners. The miniature clearly influenced the development of subject and ornamental painting on glass (colored enamels) and glazed ceramics (the main centers are Er-Raqqa, Rusafa), on the decor of bronze products (trays, vessels, incense burners, lamps, etc.), decorated chasing, engraving, carving, silver inlay (Damascus, Aleppo). Middle-century S. craftsmen became famous for making weapons, jewelry, silk patterned fabrics, and wood. carving, painting, inlay. The ubiquitous ornament is geometric. compositions, arabesques (in the form of leafy shoots forming spirals, often with flowers, birds, or a patterned rhombic grid with plant, epigraphic and figurative motifs) - became more and more complex, multi-layered (“pattern within a pattern”) and abstract.
The architecture of S. as part of the Ottoman Empire (1516–1918) acquired the features of a tour. architecture Mosques of this time usually have a small cube. volume with center hemispherical dome and slender needle-shaped minarets. The facades of the buildings are faced with contrasting rows of black and white (or yellowish) stone. The interiors of mosques, madrassas, khans (caravanserais), palaces and rich residential buildings with marble-paved courtyards with fruit trees and bushes, iwans, arcade porticos, flower beds, pools and fountains are becoming more and more elegant (Azema palaces in Damascus and Hama, 18 c.), decorated with ceramic cladding. panel with growing patterns in sonorous colors. A network of covered markets-passages with mosques, baths, and khans was formed. The street facades of 2-3-story buildings now have windows with shutters and balconies covered with wood. carved mashrabiya grilles. Monumental and decorative art and art. crafts have also undergone this means. changes (large ornament with floral motifs; calligraphic inscriptions). Carving and painting on marble and wood, inlay on wood (camel bone, colored wood, mother-of-pearl, silver) achieved high skill.
In con. 19 – 1st half. 20th centuries changes in art S.'s life led to the development of Europe. forms of architecture and depicts. art (the emergence of oil painting). In the 1920s the reconstruction of cities began (with the participation of French architects J. Sauvage, M. Ecochar, R. Danger) with the preservation of architectural monuments and the emergence of European. quarters (Damascus, general plan 1929). Mn. S. artists and architects studied in Europe; Architects X. Farra, S. Mudarris, B. al-Hakim and others were educated at Damascus University. Since the 1970s, along with the construction of the state. buildings (the municipality in Latakia, 1973, architects A. Dib, K. Seibert; the presidential palace in Damascus, 1990, architect Tange Kenzo, etc.), the construction of new residential areas, hospital complexes, parks, stadiums, university campuses began, museum buildings, and resort buildings on the coast.
Depict. claim S. 1st half. 20th century took shape in the process of European exploration. artist culture and search for national style (painter M. Kirsha, sculptors and painters M. Jalal, M. Fathi, M. Hammad). Sir was founded in 1952. Association of Arts, in 1971 - Sir. branch of the Arab Union. artists. Among the masters are the 2nd floor. 20 – beginning 21st centuries - landscape painters N. Shaura, N. Ismail, artist and art historian A. Bahnassi, representative of the Sir. avant-garde art F. al-Mudarris, portraitist L. Kayali, graphic artists N. Nabaa and N. Ismail, painter-calligrapher M. Ganum. The decorative and applied art of S. preserves tradition. types: embroidery, carpet weaving, weaving, fabric making, chasing and engraving on metal, carving, painting and inlay on wood.
Music
Among the monuments of ancient muses. culture of S. - large floor mosaic of Rome. Villa Maryamin (near Hama, 4th century), depicting rich Roman women playing music; it presents muses. instruments: oud, kamancha, kanun, goblet-shaped drum - darbuka, etc.). Samples of early music sir. no Christians survived; modern sir. “hymns” were influenced by late Greek church music (multiple ratios of rhythmic durations, time signatures and the presence of bourdon - “Ison”) and, on the other hand, maqama (hemiolic, ornamental microchromatics). In the divine service, Western Sir. Church (Antiochian rite) uses the everyday song book (hymnary) “Beth Gezo” (“Repository of Treasures”; edited by Nuri Iskander, 1992), containing approx. 700 notated chants (in modern decoding in 5-line notation). Before the start of armament. conflict in Damascus, the Sir Orchestra functioned. radio (1950) and Syrian Conservatory (1961); An opera troupe was formed at the Higher Institute of Drama and Music “Dar al-Assad” in 2004.
Theater
Until sep. 19th century development of prof. theatrical art in S. was hampered by the negative attitude of Islam towards anthropomorphic images. At the same time, the desire for acting acquired its unique features here, finding ways to survive in an unfavorable environment. Being historically the heir of three great cultures - Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman and Arab-Muslim, S., like other Arabs. countries, developed people. forms of performing arts in which almost all theatrical components are present. This is an ancient art of storytellers, a theater of shadows and puppets Karagyoz, folk scenes. comedy fasl mudhik. All performances are based on the trinity of verbal, musical and plastic. lawsuit These became artists. tradition of the people spectacular forms are included in the arsenal of the sire. theater and in the 21st century.
Along with Egypt, S. was previously another Arab. countries entered into trade and cultural contacts with the West. In the beginning. 18th century missionaries opened schools here where mystery plays and morality plays were performed. Playwright A.H. al-Qabbani adapted world drama to local conditions. Knowing folklore well, he created synthetic performances. genre, organically connecting new forms of theatrical art with the tradition of folk art. spectacles, lit. text with music, singing and dancing. The social urgency of the plays and their wide audience success led to the closure of his theater in 1884 by decree of the tour. Sultan. Al-Kabbani emigrated among other sires. cultural figures whose mass exodus to Egypt in the 1870s and 80s. associated with tur pressure. authorities, the strengthening of the influence of the local clergy and the penetration of large European countries. capital. The “Syrian Arab theater in Egypt” movement arose, the successful representatives of which were playwrights S. al-Naqqash, A. Ishak, Y. al-Hayat and others. Thanks to their efforts, a theater troupe was organized in Alexandria, which staged plays “Harun ar -Rashid" (1850), "The Creation of Good" (1878), "Tyrant" (1879), "Telemaque" (1882), etc. Between the two world wars, people occupied a special place. improvisational forms of performance with pantomime, comic. skits and music. So... contribution to the development of sir. The theater was contributed by the actor and playwright N. al-Reyhani, whose play “Kish-Kish Bey” combined elements of French. vaudeville and national music comedies; Ch. the hero of the play is considered a descendant of the people. character Karagöz. Based on its popularity in the 1920s. performances “The Barber of Baghdad” and “Jasmina” - fairy tales from “A Thousand and One Nights”. Circle of topics sire. dramas of the 1930s included Arabic stories. and Islamic history, adv. epic and mountains folklore Appeal to the historical events and characters at this stage were associated with the desire to arouse the public's admiration for the past greatness of the Arabs, awakening the national. self-awareness. The winning of independence in 1945 gave new impetus to the professionalization of theater and drama. In 1960, the National Society was created in Damascus. dramatic theater in which young directors A. Fedda, U. Ursan, D. Lachman worked. Social drama conquered the stage; Among the authors – V. Midfai, M. al-Safadi, Y. Maqdisi, M. Udwan, S. Haurania. The dramaturgy of S. Vannus, which explored the relationship between totalitarian power and the silent people, was distinguished by the most acute socially accusatory character. The criticism of the current regime on the theater stage began with Vannus’s play “Party on the Occasion of June 5th” (1968). In his search for rapprochement with the public, his play “The Head of Mamluk Jaber” (1970) directed by Fedda (1973) became a milestone: using the technique of imaginary improvisation, the director introduced into the performance the image of a storyteller who removed the barrier between the stage and the hall, following the tradition of the national. folklore
At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. one of the most pressing problems of stage production. lawsuits S. - disputes about the place and role of people. theatrical tradition, especially folk. comedy, in modern times life of the country. Leading theater figures (including Professor of Damascus University, author of many books and articles about theater H. Kassab-Hassan) advocate the need to preserve the traditions of oral storytelling, develop the “storyteller without borders” movement both in the field of theater and and in educational programs for children, about the creation of an annual festival of traveling storytellers. There are also theaters in the capital: the Workers' Union, al-Qabbani, al-Hamraa, and others. In 2004, after a 14-year break, the theater festival, founded back in 1969 by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Damascus, resumed in Damascus, attracting the attention of young performers ( The topic of the round tables is “Theater and Youth”). Despite the difficult political situation, the S. theater continues to develop. In 2010, dir. U. Ghanem organized the Damascus “Theater Laboratory”, where, based on the artist. research about modern the theater analyzes issues of modern communication. sir. dramaturgy and acting, theater and social reality. Since 2013, seminars have been held (“Working on a dramatic text from Muller to Sarah Kane”, “Chekhov and modern directing”, etc.).
Movie
From 1908 (when the first film screenings took place in the country) until mid. 1910s were demonstrated in the main chronicle and staged French. films after the outbreak of World War I - German. In 1916, the Canakkale Cinema cinema hall was opened in Damascus. The first sire came out in 1928. gaming f. “The Innocent Defendant” by A. Badri. Among the films of the 1930–60s: “Under the Sky of Damascus” by I. Anzur (1934), “Call of Duty” by Badri (1936), “Light and Darkness” by N. Shahbender (1949, the first national sound film), “ Traveler" by Z. Shaua (1950), "Green Valley" by A. Arfan (1961). In 1963, the General Organization of Sirs was formed under the Ministry of Culture. cinema (including cooperation with the USSR in the training of professional national personnel at VGIK; since the late 1990s, it has financed the production of feature films). The struggle of Syrians for their rights was told in the film “The Bus Driver” (1968, Yugoslav dir. B. Vucinich), about the fate of the Palestinian people - “The Deceived” by T. Salih (1972), about the extermination of civilians of a Palestinian village in 1956 - “Kafir Kasem" by B. Alaviya (1975, Mkf Ave. in Moscow). The theme of the Middle East conflict was also raised in the films “Reverse Direction” by M. Haddad (1975), “Heroes Are Born Twice” by S. Dekhni, “Red, White, Black” by B. Safiya (both 1977). In the 1970s - early. 1980s The director worked fruitfully. N. Malikh, who created films about the opposition of the common man to power (“Leopard”, 1972; “Old Photographs”, 1981) and ironically. key, denouncing the pharisaism of an unprincipled careerist (“Mr. Progressist”, 1975). The film “An Incident at Half a Meter” by S. Zikra (1981) criticized part of the national. youth who have withdrawn from confronting negative socio-political phenomena. Autobiographical f. “Dreams of the City” by M. Malas (1983) reflected the events of 1953–58, strengthening the principles of democracy. Satiric. the comedy “Borders” by D. Laham (1987) combined the techniques of narration. fairy tales and sharp journalism in the interpretation of the problems of confrontation between Arab countries. peace. A picture of provincial life was presented by the films of A. L. Abdul Hamid - “Nights of the Jackal” (1989) and “Oral Messages” (1991). A notable event was the historical painting about Kawakibi “Dust of Foreigners” by Zikra (1998). The film “Black Flour” by G. caused a wide resonance. Shmait (2001) about the life of the national. hinterland in the first years after independence. The independence of a student from Damascus is defended by director. V. Rakhib in f. “Dreams” (2003), which tells about the experiences of a young woman leaving her parents’ home. The moral problems of family and personal relationships between men and women were analyzed by Abdul Hamid in the film “Out of Access” (2007). The film “One More Time” by D. Said (2009) is a confession about the relationship between father and son against the backdrop of drama. events in the country. In 1979–2011, an international was held in Damascus. film festival
In 1955-1956, agreements were concluded with the British "Iraq Petroleum Company" and the American "Transara-Bien Pipeline Company" on the transfer to Syria of 50% of the profits received by the companies for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of Syria
http://bse.sci-lib.com/article102589.html
Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulfur oil was discovered near Dayr az Zawr in eastern Syria. This discovery relieved Syria of the need to import light oil to mix with domestic heavy crude in refineries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Syria
http://www.atenergy.com/me/SyriaAP.htm
At the end of 1964, the Syrian government issued a decree according to which all the country's oil and mineral resources were declared the property of the state. The transfer of concessions for their development to foreign companies was prohibited.
Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production.
By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria.
By the mid-80s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon.
http://www.bestreferat.ru/referat-10876.html
Syrian Petroleum Company
In the period of 1923 – 1950: Iraq petroleum company and then Syria oil company have been acquired a Concession for oil exploration, where /11/ wells were drilled with out petroleum discoveries.
In the period of 1951 – 1956: /6/ wells were drilled and petroleum was discovered in Karachouk field for the first time.
In 1956 Concordia Company had signed an exploration contract and drilled /12/ wells where oil accumulations were discovered in Souedieh field.
In 1957 the Syrian Government had concluded a technical and economic cooperation contract with the soviet union
In 1958 General Corporate For Oil Affairs was established and entrusted to supervise the oil industry in Cooperation with the Soviet side, where during this period a geological map for Syria was made.
The SPC was established in 1974 and was entrusted to execute oil and gas exploration and production operations in all parts of Syria.
In the period of 1961 – 1975: the SPC had executed drilling of / 485 / wild cat and exploratory wells and put a number of structures into Production.
A contract had signed with Rom petroleum company to explore oil. This company had withdrawn after drilling 7 wells.
In the period of 1975 – 1985: a group of Contracting companies for oil exploration were entered and executed geological and geophysical works over almost the whole acreage of Syria. During this period 270 exploration wells were drilled.
The SPC had recorded several discoveries, while the contracting companies didn’t achieve any discoveries.
In the period of 1986 – 1995: this period had been characterized by increasing the exploratory activity whether by the SPC or by the contracting companies where exploration contracts had signed with /12/ foreign companies (shell, Elf – Total, Marathon and Tulo Companies) were achieved significant discoveries of oil and gas in different parts of Syria. The SPChad discovered /15/ oil and gas fields
In the period of 1995 – 2006: A new group of Contracting companies for oil exploration had entered and signed 13 contracts with the Syrian Petroleum Company which they are 11 companies.
http://www.spc-sy.com/en/main/index.php
Syria (1980-2009)
(peak production year 1996)
http://www.crudeoilpeak.com/?page_id=1571
The main minerals are oil, produced mainly in Kara Shuk (Karashuk) in the far northeast of the country; natural gas mainly from the Al Jazeera area; phosphates, limestone and salt. Oil pipelines from Iraq and Jordan pass through Syria; there is a pipeline stretching from Kara Shuk to the Mediterranean coast.
Since 1974, oil has remained Syria's dominant source of income, accounting for approximately 65% of its total exports at the end of the 20th century. Oil production in 2001 was 522,700 barrels per day, with proven oil reserves of 2.4 billion barrels as of January 2002 and proven natural gas reserves of 240.7 billion cubic meters.
http://www.rusarabbc.org/rusarab/detail.php?ID=1350
In the mid-1990s, the country produced approx. 66.5–80 thousand tons of liquid fuel. In 1997, oil production amounted to 30 million tons. The largest fields are located in the extreme northeast (in Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan and the vicinity of Deir ez-Zor). In the northeast and east in the Euphrates Valley, the exploitation of deposits began in the late 1960s, and in the Deir ez-Zor region, where particularly high-quality light oil is produced, in the 1980s–1990s. Natural gas is also being extracted, including that associated with oil fields (5 billion cubic meters were produced in 1997). The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.
http://www.easttime.ru/countries/topics/2/7/49.html
4/5/2010
Syria's Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources today invited international oil companies to bid for exploration and production rights to eight blocks.
The Ministry said that it is offering production sharing contracts for Blocks III, IV, V, VII, XII, XIV, XVI, and XVIII, in the eastern and northern parts of the country. It said that qualifying documents should be submitted by 1 June and bids no later than 15 September.
In addition to the eight blocks on offer, the Ministry has extended its earlier deadline for bids to develop seven separate oil areas believed to be heavy oil fields to June 20. These are also to be under production sharing agreements and are divided into two groups, both in Raqqa Province: Group 1 includes West Tureb, Halima, and Dohal, while Group 2 consists of Jaadeen, Tal Asfar, Zenati, and al-Haloul.
Syria is in an all-out effort to drive up its oil production, which has decreased from 590,000 b/d four years ago to about 380,000 b/d today. Its natural gas production is approximately 882.9 million cf/d.
http://www.oilandgasinternational.com/departments/licensing_concessions/apr10_syria.aspx
Oil and capital, 2007, No. 4
Syria's oil reserves, according to various estimates, range from 315 million to 342 million tons. At the same time, according to experts, major discoveries have already been made in the country. In the east and northeast there are heavy (24°API) oil fields explored in the 60-70s of the 20th century (the largest of them are Karachuk and Suwaydiyah), on which the state-owned Syrian Petroleum Company (SPC) operates after nationalization in 1968. In addition, SPC is developing a number of fields it has already discovered here. Raw materials from the northeast are supplied via an oil pipeline with a capacity of about 15 million tvg to the refinery in the city of Homs and the Tartus export terminal.
The second center of Syrian oil production is located in the province of Deir ez-Zour (central and southeastern part of the country). Here, in the 80s of the last century, a consortium of foreign companies, led by Shell’s subsidiary Pecten, discovered the al-Thayyem field containing light (36°API) oil. To jointly manage the al-Thayyem concession, SPC and consortium members created the al-Furat Petroleum Company (AFPC) JV in 1985. Today, after repeated changes in the composition of shareholders, AFPC participants are SPC (50%), Shell (31.25%) and a consortium of Chinese CNPC and Indian ONGC (18.75%). In addition to al-Thayyem, AFPC is developing 36 more fields in this province. All AFPC fields are combined into three projects - Appendix IV, Al Sham, Deir ez-Zour: for each, SPC signed a production sharing contract with foreign partners. Shell is the leader in each project, with a share of more than 60%.
AFPC's fields are connected to the Kirkuk-Baniyas transit oil pipeline from Iraq, through which oil is supplied to the ports of Tartus and Latakia and to the Baniyas refinery.
According to Syrian Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Sufian Allaw, the country produced about 20 million tons of oil in 2006: 3 million tons less than a year earlier (see chart). Moreover, according to various (often conflicting) sources, AFPC accounts for from 1/2 to 2/3 of total production. Over the past 10 years, the level of oil production in Syria has decreased by a third from its peak of 30 million tge in 1996. The reason for this was the depletion of the vast majority of fields, the reduction in production at which began back in the 90s.
At this stage, Syria is a net exporter of oil, but at the same time the country imports oil. Mostly light oil is imported into Syria; it is mixed with local heavy varieties, and only this mixture is processed at refineries that were initially focused on Iraqi raw materials. Currently, the Kirkuk-Baniyas oil pipeline does not operate as a transit pipeline: the Americans blocked it in 2003.
According to IMF forecasts, if the decline in oil production in Syria is not stopped, and the volume of consumption of petroleum products continues to grow, then by 2010 the country will become a net importer of “black gold” from a net exporter. In order to avoid this, the country's leadership, on the one hand, is intensifying efforts to attract investors to explore new reserves, and on the other hand, it has begun to pay more attention to intensifying production and expanding the use of natural gas. Let us note that the influx of investment into the country is limited by US sanctions, which believe that Syria supports international terrorism. This, in particular, explains the absence of major American companies in the country, which at the dawn of the development of Syrian oil production showed significant interest in it.
In 2001, a series of international tender rounds opened in Syria for the right to conduct oil and gas exploration work under a PSA. Over the past time, at least 5 (according to other sources - 6) rounds have taken place in the country, during which more than 20 licensed areas have found owners.
In mid-March, Syria put up new areas for the next round, which, if all of them are distributed, will most likely be the last of the “land” ones. Damascus offers 7 lots, and all of them are located in border areas: 3 with Jordan, 2 with Iraq, and 2 with Turkey. Also this year it is planned to offer investors offshore blocks of the Syrian shelf of the Mediterranean Sea.
During previous rounds, companies from all over the world received licenses in Syria: currently, according to Sufian Allawa, 13 foreign entities are conducting oil exploration and production here. Two Russian companies - Tatneft and SoyuzNefteGaz - also received the opportunity to develop production projects in Syria: each of them won one license.
Russian companies signed a PSA for the licenses they won in 2005, just after Syrian President Bashar al-Assad visited Moscow and Russia agreed to write off a significant part of the Syrian debt.
Tatneft “took” its block (No. 27) in the 2003 round. Its area is 1900 km2, it is divided into two sections, which are directly adjacent to the border with Iraq. The Kirkuk-Baniyas oil pipeline runs along the edge of the southern section of the block. According to the terms of the contract, Tatneft will allocate more than $26 million for geological exploration over 7 years. The main exploration period for the block is 3 years; at Tatneft’s request, it can be extended twice by two years. The minimum exploration program involves conducting 2D and 3D seismic surveys and drilling three exploration wells, and in case of contract extension, three more. The period of field development and oil production under the contract is 25 years. During this period, Tatneft will also spend $1 million to finance social and educational programs.
At the moment, there is no data on possible reserves of the block. According to experts, despite the complex geological structure, the block is promising, given that oil production is actively underway in neighboring areas. According to information from Tatneft, by the end of 2006 the company had completed work on interpreting seismic data from previous years, and in early March it began seismic exploration work, including 3D, over an area of 130 km2 and geochemical surveying over an area of 170 km2.
SoyuzNefteGaz won in 2004: the company won licenses for two blocks - No. 12 and No. 14, but subsequently abandoned the second. SoyuzNefteGaz will operate in the block bordering Iraq, which is adjacent to the holdings of Tatneft. According to the company, the block most likely contains gas resources rather than oil, which at this stage are estimated at 70-80 billion m3. As NIK reported, over 8 years, according to the terms of the contract, SoyuzNefteGaz must invest at least $50 million in geological exploration. It will have to conduct 2D seismic over an area of 1000 linear meters. km and 3D - for 500 km2, and also to drill 10 exploration wells.
Let us note that both Tatneft and SoyuzNefteGaz have interests in Iraq. In particular, the largest project of SoyuzNefteGaz is the development of the Al-Rafidayan field, located in the south of the country. According to information from both companies, they consider Syrian assets as a springboard for strengthening their positions in Iraq. But if Tatneft does not intend to expand the geography of its activities in Syria, then SoyuzNefteGaz is considering the possibility of participating in the upcoming “land” round, which will include areas on the border with Iraq. By the way, Yuri Shafranik’s company has previously made attempts to enter into existing projects for the development of border blocks (see “Block No. 26”).
In 2005, the Russian Stroytransgaz began implementing two large-scale projects in Syria. Firstly, the company, having won the tender and signed a contract for $210 million with the Syrian Gas Company (SGC), began developing three fields in the new Palmyra gas production area. As part of it, Stroytransgaz is building a gas processing plant with a capacity of 2.2 billion m3/year of purified gas, 23 thousand tg of propane-butane and 180 thousand tg of condensate, as well as gas pipelines and related infrastructure. Construction is scheduled to be completed in February 2008. At the same time, the company is negotiating the construction of a second gas processing plant in Palmyra with a capacity of 1.1 billion m3.
Secondly, Stroytransgaz began construction of a section of the Arab gas pipeline, through which Egyptian gas should be supplied to Turkey, and then, after joining the Nabucco project, to Europe. The implementation of the project is divided into two stages: the first involves the construction of a 96 km section from the border with Jordan to the Deir Ali thermal power plant and a branch (5 km) to the Tishrin thermal power plant, the second involves the construction of the Deir Ali - Homs section and a gas collection point in Homs, as well as a connection GPP in Palmyra with Homs. The construction of a branch to the Tishrine thermal power plant is the result of an expansion of the contract in 2005, the cost of which, according to the company, increased to $160 million. At this stage, more than 150 km of gas pipeline have already been laid in the ground; Construction is scheduled to be completed in December of this year.
In addition to the ongoing construction projects, Stroytransgaz’s “waiting list” includes projects whose implementation is related to Iraq, and which have been postponed until the situation in this country stabilizes. Thus, in 2001, Stroytransgaz reached an agreement with the Syrian government on the construction, together with the French Total, of a new transit branch of the Kirkuk-Homs-Baniyas-Beirut oil pipeline with a throughput capacity of 70 million tvg. In 2002, the company handed over a feasibility study for the oil pipeline to the Syrian side. As Stroytransgaz told NIK, Syria has not yet made a decision to revive the oil pipeline, but the company believes that this is only a matter of time. Once this pipe is in demand again, Stroytransgaz will become the number one contender for its construction.
In addition, the Western Gas project, within the framework of which a gas pipeline with a length of 300 km and a cost of €180 million was to be built to Syria from Iraq, was frozen. At the initiative of the Iraqi side, Stroytransgaz prepared a corresponding proposal in 2002; Before the outbreak of hostilities, the parties managed to agree on the technical and commercial aspects of the project, but negotiations were suspended at this point. At the end of 2005, Iraq and Syria signed an agreement to revive the project.
Today, there are two fuel oil refineries operating in Syria - in Homs and Baniyas, built in 1959 and 1979, respectively. The total capacity of the plants is about 11.5 million tvg. They do not have catalytic cracking units, and the reforming unit at the Baniyas refinery has a capacity (about 1.5 million tow) that is insufficient to meet the country’s needs for motor fuel. Syria annually exports straight-run gasoline and is forced to import kerosene and diesel fuel.
At the same time, domestic consumption of petroleum products in the country is growing steadily and currently amounts to about 13 million tge. According to Syrian experts, this trend will continue, so the local downstream needs to be expanded and modernized. At this stage, the country’s oil refining capacity is planned to be increased to 25 million tg through the construction of two new refineries. In the future, Syria intends to completely abandon the export of crude oil and maintain only the export of petroleum products.
Today, it can be stated that most major projects in the field of infrastructure development of the Syrian oil industry are either already being implemented or promised to Russian companies. Given that two years ago they only had plans in Syria, this result can be called a breakthrough.
It is clear, of course, that this breakthrough was a consequence of the political support provided to the Syrian leader in Russia, as well as debt write-off.
Now Russian companies are striving to conclude agreements with the Syrian side on a non-competitive basis, which, according to representatives of the Russian-Syrian Business Council, is the shortest way to start implementing specific projects. According to the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade, the Syrian leadership is meeting Russia halfway on this issue.
