The Aztecs belonged to the last wave of Indian tribes that moved from the more northern regions of the American continent to the Valley of Mexico. The culture of these tribes at first did not have any distinct features, but gradually they crystallized into a single, strong whole - the Aztec civilization. Initially, the tribes lived separately in their village and satisfied their living needs by cultivating the land. These resources were supplemented whenever possible by tribute from conquered peoples. At the head of the tribe was a hereditary leader, who simultaneously performed priestly functions. Religious ideas were characterized by a complex polytheistic system based on the worship of nature, highlighting the veneration of one or more gods in special cults.

1168 AD - the history of the Aztecs begins. The Aztecs (Mexica or Tenochki) begin their exodus from the ancestral home of Aztlana, guided by their supreme god of war, Huitzilopochtli. Around 1325, they founded the city of Tenochtitlan, which was located on the site of the city of Mexico, which later became the capital of the most powerful state in Mexico. Initially, the tenochki became dependent on the city of Culuacan. It was a huge city that played an important role in the Valley of Mexico. Another major center of this time was the city of Texcoco, located on the eastern shore of the Mexican lakes. About seventy cities paid tribute to its ruler Kinatzin (1298-1357). His successor Techotlal managed to unite all the dialects of the Valley of Mexico into one Aztec language.

The Aztec culture was the latest in a long line of advanced civilizations that flourished and declined in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. The oldest of them, the Olmec culture, developed on the Gulf Coast in the 14th - 3rd centuries. BC e. The Olmecs paved the way for the formation of subsequent civilizations, which is why the era of their existence is called pre-classical. They had a developed mythology with an extensive pantheon of gods, erected massive stone structures, and were skilled in stone carving and pottery. Their society was hierarchical and narrowly professionalized; the latter was manifested, in particular, in the fact that religious, administrative and economic issues were dealt with by specially trained people. These features of Olmec society were further developed in subsequent civilizations.

State formation of the Aztecs in Mexico in the 14th – early 16th centuries. with its center in the city of Tenochtitlan until 1348, it was dependent on the rulers of the city of Culuacan in 1348-1427. In the late 20s of the 15th century, the Aztec ruler Itzcoatl led the “alliance of three cities” of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan and defeated the rulers of Azcopotzalco. As a result of the wars of conquest waged by Itzcoatl and his successors (Montezuma I the Wrathful, ruled in Ahuitzotl 1440-1469; Axayacatl 1469-1486; Ahuitzotl 1486-1503), not only the valley became part of the Aztec kingdom rivers of Mexico City, but also all of Central Mexico. The Aztec kingdom reached its greatest prosperity under Montezuma II (1503–1519). In the 15th – early 16th centuries. slavery was greatly developed. The main ruler of the Aztec kingdom, Tlacatecuhtli or Tlatoani, was formally an elected leader, but in fact his power was hereditary. The formation of the main classes of society was not completed. The position of a member of society was determined by his belonging not only to class, but also to caste, of which there were over ten in the Aztec kingdom.

By the time the Spaniards arrived at the beginning of the 16th century, the Aztec Empire covered a vast territory - about 200 thousand square meters. km - with a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders extended from Northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific Coast to the Gulf of Mexico. The capital of the empire, Tenochtitlan, eventually turned into a huge city, the area of ​​which was about 1200 hectares, and the number of inhabitants, according to various estimates, reached 120-300 thousand people. This island city was connected to the mainland by three large stone roads - dams, and there was a whole flotilla of canoes. Like Venice, Tenochtitlan was cut through by a regular network of canals and streets. The core of the city formed a ritual-administrative center: a “sacred area” - a walled square 400 m long, inside which were the main city temples, dwellings of priests, schools, and a ground for ritual ball games. Nearby were ensembles of magnificent palaces of Aztec rulers - “tlatoani”. According to eyewitnesses, the palace of Montezuma (more precisely, Moctezuma) II consisted of up to 300 rooms, had a large garden, a zoo, and baths. Residential areas inhabited by merchants, artisans, farmers, officials, and warriors were crowded around the center. At the huge Main Market and smaller quarterly bazaars, local and transported products and products were traded. The general impression of the magnificent Aztec capital is well conveyed by the words of an eyewitness and participant in the dramatic events of the conquest - soldier Bercal Diaz del Castillo from Cortez’s detachment. Standing at the top of a high step pyramid, the conquistador gazed in amazement at the strange and dynamic picture of life in the huge pagan city: “And we saw a huge number of boats, some came with various cargoes, others ... with various goods ... All the houses of this great city ... were in the water , and it was possible to get from house to house only by hanging bridges or by boats. And we saw... pagan temples and chapels that resembled towers and fortresses, and they all sparkled with whiteness and aroused admiration.”

Tenochtitlan was captured by Cortez after a three-month siege and fierce struggle in 1525. And right on the ruins of the Aztec capital, from the stones of its palaces and temples, the Spaniards built a new city - Mexico City, the rapidly growing center of their colonial possessions in the New World. Over time, the remains of Aztec buildings were covered by multi-meter layers of modern life. Under these conditions, it is almost impossible to conduct systematic and extensive archaeological research of Aztec antiquities. Only occasionally, during excavation work in the center of Mexico City, stone sculptures are born - the creations of ancient masters. Therefore, the discoveries of the late 70s and 80s became a real sensation. XX century during excavations of the Main Temple of the Aztecs - "Templo Mayor" - in the very center of Mexico City, in Zocalo Square, between the cathedral and the presidential palace. Now the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli (god of the sun and war, head of the Aztec pantheon) and Tlaloc (god of water and rain, patron of agriculture) have already been opened, the remains of fresco paintings and stone sculpture have been discovered. Particularly noteworthy are a round stone with a diameter of over three meters with a low-relief image of the goddess Coyolshauhki - the sister of Huitzilopochtli, 53 deep pits - hiding places filled with ritual offerings (stone figurines of gods, shells, corals, incense, ceramic vessels, necklaces, skulls of sacrificed people). Newly discovered materials (their total number exceeds several thousand) expanded existing ideas about the material culture, religion, trade, economic and political relations of the Aztecs during the heyday of their state at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries.

The Aztecs were in that initial phase of social development when the alien captive slave was not yet fully included in the economic mechanism of the emerging class society, when the benefits and advantages that slave labor could provide were not yet fully realized. However, the institution of debt slavery had already emerged, extending to the local poor; the Aztec slave found his place in the new, developing relations of production, but he retained the right of redemption, which, as we know, the “classical” slave was deprived of. Of course, foreign slaves were also involved in economic activities, but the labor of a slave has not yet become the basis of the foundations of this society.

The senseless destruction of thousands of captive slaves on the sacrificial altars of Aztec temples was elevated to the basis of the cult. Human sacrifice became the central event of any holiday. Sacrifices were performed almost daily. One person was sacrificed with solemn honors. So, every year the most beautiful young man was chosen from among the captives, who was destined to enjoy all the benefits and privileges of the god of war Tezcatlipoca for a year, so that after this period he would be on the sacrificial stone-altar. But there were also such “holidays” when the priests sent hundreds, and according to some sources, thousands of prisoners to another world. True, the reliability of such statements belonging to eyewitnesses of the conquest is difficult to believe, but the gloomy and cruel Aztec religion, which did not recognize compromises with mass human sacrifices, knew no limits in its zealous service to the ruling caste aristocracy.

The Aztec state was a fragile territorial entity, similar to many territorial empires of antiquity. The nature of its economy was polymorphic, but the basis was intensive irrigated agriculture. The range of crops grown by the Aztecs was typical of the Valley of Mexico. These are corn, zucchini, pumpkin, green and red peppers, many types of legumes and cotton. Tobacco was also grown, which the Aztecs smoked mostly in hollow reed stalks, like cigarettes. The Aztecs also loved chocolate made from cocoa beans. The latter also served as a means of exchange. Agriculture was an important aspect of life in Tenochtitlan. The Aztec codices, as well as Spanish chronicles, say that Aztec landowners created strips of fertile land built on water, using silt and algae from the surrounding swamps. These artificially created fields, chinampas, were separated by canals, and the edges had to be reinforced with wooden supports or specially planted trees to prevent the ground from collapsing back into the water. The Aztec chinampas were surprisingly fertile. Farmers grew a wide variety of crops, including maize, peppers, tomatoes, pumpkins, beans, spices and flowers, squash, oilseed crops, and cotton. The swamps were drained using a network of canals. The intoxicating drink pulque was made from agave juice.

The Aztecs had few domestic animals. They had several breeds of dogs, one of which was used for food. The most common poultry are turkeys, possibly geese, duck and quail. Crafts played a significant role in the Aztec economy, especially pottery, weaving, as well as stone and wood processing. There were few metal products. Some of them, for example, finely forged copper knives in the shape of a sickle, served along with cocoa beans as a means of exchange. Gold was used by the Aztecs only for making jewelry, and silver was probably of great value. The most important thing for the Aztecs was jade and stones that resembled it in color and structure. Crafts separated from agriculture and reached a high level of development.

The market was located in one of the areas of Tenochtitlan called Tlatelolco. Judging by the descriptions of the Spanish soldiers, they had never before seen such a large and well-organized market with such a huge variety of goods as in Tenochtitlan. Each type of goods had its own special place, and all goods were carefully checked. Those who stole or cheated were severely punished. The only type of exchange among the Aztecs was barter. The means of exchange were cocoa beans, feather shafts filled with gold sand, pieces of cotton fabric (cuachtli) and the copper knives mentioned above. Due to the high costs of human labor for transportation in the Aztec state, it was reasonable to bring the places of production of products and products as close as possible to the places of their consumption. Therefore, the population of the cities turned out to be extremely diverse both professionally and socially, and many artisans spent a significant part of their time working in the fields and vegetable gardens. Over long distances it was profitable to move only the most expensive or light in weight and small in volume products - for example, fabrics or obsidian; but the local exchange was unusually lively. The Aztecs had a very good education, teaching such disciplines as religion, astronomy, the history of laws, medicine, music and the art of war. The art of dance and many sports were developed, as well as theater and poetry. They had a ball game very similar to today's basketball.

The ruler or king was called "tlatoani". In speeches dedicated to the new ruler, it was emphasized that he was only a representative of Tezcatlipoca on earth, his likeness, the instrument through which the omnipotent deity rules people. The role of the ruler is as a mediator between gods and people, or even more precisely, an instrument of the gods.

In the social structure of Aztec society, the following five groups were distinguished: warriors, priests, merchants, commoners, slaves. The first three estates constituted the privileged classes of society, the fourth and fifth groups constituted its exploited part. The classes were not homogeneous. There was a certain hierarchy within them, determined by the size of property and social status. All classes were clearly separated, and this could be determined even by clothing. According to one of the laws introduced by Montezuma I, each class had to wear its own type of clothing. This also applied to slaves. The military nobility played a decisive role in Aztec society. The title tekuhtli (“noble”) was usually given to people who held important government and military positions. Most civilian officials were in fact the same military officers. The most noble ones who distinguished themselves in battle in the war formed a kind of “order”, a special union of “Eagles” or “Jaguars”. The nobility received in-kind allowances and land plots from the tlatoani. No one except nobles and leaders could, on pain of death, build a house with two floors. There was a difference in punishments for offenses for a noble person and a commoner. Moreover, class norms were often more cruel. Thus, if a person who was in enemy captivity was of “low origin,” then he was not threatened with expulsion from the community and family, while a “noble” person was killed by his compatriots and relatives themselves. This reflected the desire of the elite of society to maintain the strength of their position.

The priesthood was one of the privileged classes of Aztec society. The Aztec conquerors were extremely interested in strengthening religion, because it, preaching war as the highest valor and the Aztecs as its most worthy bearers, provided an ideological justification for the policy of conquest that they pursued throughout their independent history. The priests walked in the forefront during military campaigns. They were the first to greet warriors returning home at the gates of the capital. Temples increased their wealth through gifts and voluntary donations. These could be gifts of land or part of the tribute of the nobility and the Tlatoani. The donation of the population could be for a variety of reasons: fortune telling, prediction, offerings for the sake of the success of their activities. The temples also had their own handicraft production. All income went to the maintenance of the priesthood and the conduct of numerous religious rituals. The life of the priesthood was regulated by certain norms. The priest guilty of having an affair with a woman was secretly beaten with sticks, his property was taken away, and his house was destroyed. They also killed all those who were involved in this crime. If a priest had unnatural tendencies, he was burned alive.

Slaves occupied the lowest social rung in the hierarchy of Aztec society. The sources of slavery among the Aztecs were varied. Selling into slavery for theft was practiced. Debt slavery was widespread. Betrayal towards the state or one's immediate master was also punished involuntarily. However, the most characteristic of ancient Aztec society was patriarchal slavery. Parents could sell their “negligent” children into slavery. This happened more often in lean years, when extensive slave trade took place.

The Aztec state included about 500 cities and other settlements, divided into 38 administrative units headed by local rulers or specially sent managers. To collect tribute, monitor the royal lands and official plots, there were special officials - kalpishki, appointed from the military class. There was also local legal proceedings. Local courts considered only minor crimes, or those that were easily demonstrable. The bulk of cases of ordinary citizens were decided by these courts. To record cases in certain institutions there was a special staff of “scribes”. In most cases, records were made using pictography, however, sometimes May hieroglyphic writing was also used.

Diverse interpersonal relationships in Aztec society were regulated by marriage and family norms. Their most characteristic feature was the unlimited power of the father and husband. The basis of the family was marriage, the procedure for concluding which was equally a religious and legal act. It was built, as a rule, on the principle of monogamy, but polygamy was also allowed for wealthy people. There were two types of inheritance - by law and by will. Only sons inherited. The penalty for adultery was death in various ways. Blood relatives were punished by death for intimate relationships: the perpetrators were hanged. However, levirate marriages were allowed. Drunkenness was severely punished. Only people who had reached fifty could consume intoxicating drinks, and in a strictly defined quantity. Young people caught drinking were punished at school, sometimes beaten to death.

The last Aztec ruler in Tenochitlan was Montezuma II Xocoyotzin (1502–1520). The Spaniards came to America and conquered the continent.

The Aztecs not only worshiped the Feathered Serpent as one of the main inhabitants of the pantheon of their gods, but also well remembered the history of his exile. The priests, trying to keep the people in fear and obedience, constantly reminded of the return of Quetzalcoatl. They convinced the people that the offended deity, who had gone to the east, would return from the east to punish everyone and everything. Moreover, the legend said that Quetzalcoatl was white-faced and bearded, while the Indians were mustacheless, beardless and dark-skinned! White-faced, bearded Spaniards came from the East. Oddly enough, the first, and at the same time unconditionally, to believe that the Spaniards are the descendants of the legendary deity Quetzalcoatl, was none other than the omnipotent ruler of Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma, who enjoyed unlimited power. Fear of the divine origin of foreigners paralyzed his ability to resist, and the entire hitherto mighty country, along with a magnificent military machine, found itself at the feet of the conquerors. The Aztecs should have immediately removed their ruler, distraught with fear, but the same religion, which inspired the inviolability of the existing order, prevented this. When reason finally conquered religious prejudices, it was too late. As a result, the giant empire was wiped off the face of the earth, and the Aztec civilization ceased to exist. The rich and distinctive Aztec culture was destroyed by the Spanish conquest from 1519 to 1521. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, was completely destroyed by the conquistadors.

Summarizing the history and life of the Aztecs, we can say that their culture consisted of religion and politics. The priests had almost complete power over the people. Perhaps there is hardly another similar example in history when it was religion that turned out to be the decisive factor in the defeat and complete destruction of those whom it was supposed to serve faithfully. People's lives were completely controlled by laws based on religion. Even clothing and food were strictly regulated. Trade flourished, and anything could be bought in the market of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.

In complete contrast to the rules in the European colonies, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner catch the slave. Also, a slave could not be sold without his consent, unless the authorities classified the slave as disobedient. (Disobedience was defined by laziness, attempts to escape, and bad behavior). Unruly slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. Shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their design made escape in crowds or narrow passages more difficult.

When purchasing a shackled slave, the buyer was told how many times the slave had been resold. A slave sold four times as disobedient could be sold for sacrifice; such slaves were sold for a higher price.

However, if the chained slave presented himself in the royal palace or temple, he received freedom.

An Aztec could become a slave as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered man at her request. A father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold into slavery.

In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. Typically, this was the lot of unlucky gamblers and old "auini" - courtesans or prostitutes.

Fun and Games

aztec empire communication

Although it was possible to drink pulque (a fermented drink with a low alcohol content), the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk before reaching the age of sixty; violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.

As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was tlachtli, the Aztec version of the ancient Mesoamerican game ulama. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "ollie", from which comes the Spanish "ule", meaning rubber.

According to other sources, the ball was made of stone, and playing it was characterized by extraordinary cruelty - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring located high enough without causing physical harm to oneself.

A participant in the game who hit the ball in the ring was sacrificed.

The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or captain of the winning team. (According to other sources, the captain and players of the losing team were sacrificed).

The sacrifice of the participant who scored the “goal” was a great honor both for himself and for his entire family. Participants who did not show enough dexterity during the game remained to live, but together with their families were relegated to the lowest social stratum of society.

Education

Until the age of fourteen, children's education was in the hands of their parents. There was an oral tradition (a set of oral instructions) called huehuetlatolli (“proverbs of the old men”) that conveyed the moral and ethical ideals of the Aztecs.

There were remarks and sayings for every occasion, there were words for greeting birth and words of farewell at death.

Young men went to school from the age of 15. There were two types of educational institutions. In tepochcalli they taught history, religion, the art of war, as well as trade and crafts (peasant or artisan). The Calmecas, where the sons of the Pilli mostly went, focused on training leaders (tlactoques), priests, scholar-teachers, and scribes. They studied rituals, literacy, chronology, poetry and, as in Tepochcalli, martial arts.

Aztec teachers offered a Spartan regimen of training - cold baths in the morning, hard work, physical punishment, bloodletting with thorns and tests of endurance - with the goal of creating a courageous people.

The girls were taught housework and raising children, but were not taught to read or write.

There were two main opportunities for gifted children: some were sent to the song and dance house, and others to the ball house. Both occupations had high status.

The Aztecs created artificial islands, or chinampas, on Lake Tncoco; Cereals and horticultural crops were grown on these islands. The main foodstuffs of the Aztecs were maize (corn), beans and cucurbits. The Chinampas were very efficient and produced up to seven harvests per year, based on the current harvests the Chinampas collected food for 180,000 people. Much has been said about the lack of proteins in the Aztec diet as an argument in support of the theory of the existence of cannibalism among them, but these statements have little evidence: the combination of maize and beans provides the necessary norm of essential amino acids, which eliminates the problem of protein deficiency. Moreover, the Aztecs had a wide variety of other foods: they caught acocilas, small shrimp abundant in Lake Texcoco, collected spirulina algae, rich in flavoproteins, which was used in various types of baked goods; They also ate insects: crickets, worms, ants and larvae.

Insects contain more protein than meat, and to this day, they are a delicacy in some areas of Mexico. The Aztecs kept domesticated animals like the turkey and the Itzcuintli (a breed of meat dog), although the meat from these animals was usually reserved for special occasions—situations of gratitude and respect. Another source of meat was hunting - fallow deer, wild boar, ducks...

In my opinion, if the Aztecs had cannibalism, it was most likely not from a lack of protein or meat, but rather from some religious considerations and traditions, for example, a way to show and feel the power of greatness and superiority over other people.

The Aztecs used agave extensively; from it they obtained food, sugar, drinks (pulque) and fibers for ropes and clothing. Cotton and jewelry were only available to the elite. Subject cities paid annual tribute in the form of luxury goods (such as feathers and ornate costumes).

After the Spanish conquest, some food crops, such as amaranth, were banned, which led to a reduction in the diet and chronic malnutrition of the inhabitants.

Poetry was the only worthy occupation of the Aztec warrior in times of peace. Despite the shock of the era, a number of poetic works collected during the Conquest have reached us. For several dozen poetic texts, the names of the authors are even known, for example Nezahualco-yotl and Cuacuczin.

Cheat Sheet: Aztec Culture

Miguel Leon-Portilla, the most famous translator of Nahuatl, reports that it is in poetry that we can find the true intentions of Aztec thought, regardless of the “official” worldview.

In the basement of the Great Temple is the “House of the Eagles,” where in peacetime Aztec military leaders could drink foaming chocolate, smoke good cigars and compete in poetry.

The poems were accompanied by playing percussion instruments. One of the most common themes of poetry is “life - reality or a dream?” and the opportunity to meet the Creator. The Aztecs loved drama, but the Aztec version of this art form would hardly be called theater. The most famous genres are performances with music and acrobatic performances and performances of the gods.

Aztec militancy

None of the other peoples strived for military glory as much as the Aztecs. Death in battle or on a sacrificial stone was considered the most honorable. Warriors who died in battle, victims, as well as women who died during childbirth could hope for the highest honor in the afterlife; almost all others, regardless of social status, were forced to wander underground for four years before reaching the lowest level of the otherworldly realm, which the Aztecs called the Land of the Dead, or “our common home.”

One of the reasons for militancy was religion. Every night the struggle of the Sun with the Moon and stars is repeated, and if Huitzilopochtli loses the battle, then life is doomed to perish in the dark. The powers of the deity must be restored every day, and according to the Aztecs, human blood, which they called “the most precious water,” is ideal for this.

Scholars are not unanimous in their estimates of how many people the Aztecs killed each year, but most likely they sacrificed about 20,000 people throughout the empire.

In a world of warring states, much could be achieved solely through military skill, and the Aztecs understood this perfectly. According to information from codices, reports from the Spaniards and the results of archaeological excavations, no developed weapons of war ever appeared in Mesoamerica. The outcome of the battle depended solely on the skill of individual warriors. In such conditions, the winner will be the one who achieves two goals - strengthening the military organization and increasing the morale of the soldiers. The entire Aztec culture was structured to maximize the achievement of these goals.

There is a special logic in the Aztecs' desire for military success. It is noteworthy that the Aztecs made almost no attempt to conquer the conquered peoples. They did not build fortresses and did not leave garrisons behind enemy lines.

Instead, they sought to frighten the other city-states of the region: only the fear of retribution kept the tribute flowing. Any hint that the Aztecs were no longer invincible would cause an immediate uprising, which the Spaniards took advantage of, helped by local residents who wanted to overthrow their oppressors.

However, the Aztec military machine was trouble-free and as developed as the level of development of society allowed. All the energy of the state was aimed at increasing military power. From the age of 20, any healthy man could be drafted into a military campaign, which regularly began in the fall, after the harvest and the end of the summer rains. In addition, there were professional warriors from among the nobility and commoners who distinguished themselves on the battlefield. They did not perform any other duties, but were supported mainly by tribute from the conquered cities.

The battles were mostly chaotic and furious hand-to-hand combat, with plenty of opportunity for everyone to distinguish themselves. In terms of heroism, they were more reminiscent of the battles of Homeric Greece than the European armed maneuvers of that time. Usually the battle began with shelling from bows and slings. Then the troops converged, lined up in a long line, shooting darts from the atlas. In the vanguard were seasoned veterans who engaged in hand-to-hand combat with the enemy.

The purpose of military action was to force the conquered peoples to recognize the dominance of the Aztecs and pay them tribute. By 1519, about 370 cities had suffered a similar fate, and the amount of tribute delivered to Tenochtitlan annually was enormous. The tribute included 7,000 tons of grain, 4,000 tons of beans, 2 million cotton cloaks along with a smaller number of military armor, shields and feather headdresses.

During the excavations of the Great Temple, many luxury items were discovered, most of which came to the Aztecs as tribute, since they are not found in the Valley of Mexico.

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The Aztec Empire, centered in the capital Tenochtitlan, dominated much of Mesoamerica in the 15th and 16th centuries CE. Through military conquest and expanding trade, Aztec art also spread, helping the Aztecs achieve cultural and political hegemony over their subjects and create for posterity a tangible record of the artistic imagination and talent of the artists of this last great civilization of Mesoamerica.

INFLUENCES
Common threads run through the history of Mesoamerican art. The Olmec, Mayan, Toltec, and Zapotec cultures, among others, perpetuated an artistic tradition that showed a love of monumental stone sculpture, imposing architecture, highly colored ceramics, geometric marks for fabric and body art, and spectacular metalwork that were used to represent people. animals, plants, gods and features of religious ceremony, especially those rites and deities associated with fertility and agriculture.

Aztec artists were also influenced by their contemporaries from neighboring states, especially artists from Oaxaca (many of whom were permanent residents of Tenochtitlan) and the Huasteca region on the Gulf Coast, where there was a strong tradition of three-dimensional sculpture. These varied influences and the Aztecs' own eclectic tastes and admiration for ancient art made their art one of the most diverse of any ancient culture anywhere. Sculptures of terrible gods with abstract images may come from the same workshop as naturalistic works depicting the beauty and grace of the animal and human form.

FEATURES OF AZTECA ART
Metallurgy was a special skill of the Aztecs. The great Renaissance artist Albrecht Draurer saw some of the artifacts returned to Europe that made him say: “... I have never seen in all my days anything that has so rejoiced my heart as these things. For I saw among them amazing artistic objects, and I admired the subtle ingenuity of the people in these distant countries." Unfortunately, as with most artifacts, these objects were melted down for currency and so very few examples survive thanks to the Aztecs' excellent metalworking skills in gold and silver. Smaller objects were discovered, including gold labrets (lip piercings), pendants, rings, earrings and necklaces in gold, representing everything from eagles to tortoiseshells to gods, indicating the skills of lost wax casting and the filigree work of the finest artisans or Toltec.

Aztec sculpture was the best to survive, and its subjects were very often people from the extended family of gods they worshiped. Carved from stone and wood, these figures, sometimes monumental in size, were not idols containing the spirit of a god, as in Aztec religion the spirit of a particular deity was considered to reside in sacred sanctuaries and shrines. However, it was considered necessary to “feed” these sculptures with blood and precious objects, hence the stories from the Spanish conquistadors of huge statues, spattered with blood and inlaid with precious stones and gold. Other large sculptures, more in the circle, include the magnificent seated god Xochipilli and various chacmools, reclining figures with a hollow carved chest that was used as a vessel for heart sacrifices. They, like most other Aztec sculptures, were once painted using a wide range of vibrant colors.

Smaller scale sculpture has been found at sites throughout Central Mexico. They often take the form of local deities and especially gods associated with agriculture. The most common are straight female figures of the corn deity, usually with an imposing headdress and the corn god Xipe Totec. Lacking the sophistication of imperial art, these sculptures and similar ceramic figures often represent a more benevolent side of the Aztec gods.

Miniature works were also popular when objects such as plants, insects and shells were presented in precious materials such as carnelite, pearl, amethyst, rock crystal, obsidian, shell and the most valuable of all materials, jade. Another material that was highly prized were exotic feathers, especially the green plumage of the quetzal bird. Feathers, cut into small pieces, were used to create mosaic paintings, as decorations for shields, costumes and fans, and in magnificent headdresses such as the one attributed to Motecuhoma II, now in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Vienna.

Turquoise was a particularly popular material with Aztec artists, and its use in mosaic form to cover sculptures and masks created some of the most striking imagery from Mesoamerica. A typical example is the decorated human skull which represents the god Tezcatlipoca and which is now in the British Museum in London. Another fine example is the mask of Xiuhtecuhtli, the god of fire, sleepy pearl-colored eyes and a beautiful set of white shells. Finally, there is a magnificent double-headed snake cloak, also now in the British Museum. With carved cedar wood completely covered in small squares of turquoise, as well as red mouths and white teeth made into spondylus and shell, respectively, the piece was likely part of a ceremonial costume. The snake was a powerful image in Aztec art as a creature that could shed its skin, represented regeneration, and was also especially associated with the god Quetzalcoatl.

Despite the lack of a potter's wheel, the Aztecs were also skilled with pottery, as indicated by the large hollow figures and several beautifully carved covered urns that were excavated near the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan were likely used as vessels for funerary ashes. Other examples of ceramic work include molded thuribles with tripod legs in Texcoco, eruption jars, and elegant hourglass-shaped clock cups. These vessels are generally thin-walled, well distributed, have a cream or red and black slide, and bear finely colored geometric designs in earlier designs, and flora and fauna in later examples. The most highly prized pottery of the Aztecs themselves, and the type used by Motecuxoma himself, was the ultra-fine Cholula ware from Cholollan in the Puebla Valley. The vessels could also be made from molds or carved, and the clay would still be hard. A fine example of these anthropomorphic vessels is the famous vase representing the head of the rain god Tlaloc, painted in bright blue, with ocular eyes and fearsome red fangs, now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

Musical instruments were another important part of the Aztec artist's repertoire. These include ceramic flutes and wooden teponazlites and huehueltas, respectively long and vertical ceremonial drums. They are richly carved, and one of the best is the Malinalco drum, which is covered with dancing jaguars and eagles that represent sacrificial victims, as indicated by banners and speech scrolls of battle and fire symbols.

ART AS PROPAGANDA
The Aztecs, like their cultural predecessors, used art as a tool to enhance their military and cultural dominance.

The overlay of buildings, murals, sculptures, and even manuscripts, especially at key sites such as Tenochtitlan, not only represented and even reproduced key elements of Aztec religion, but also reminded subjects of the wealth and power that permitted their construction and production.

The ultimate example of this use of art as a conveyor belt of political and religious messages is the Mayor Templo in Tenochtitlan, which was much more than an extremely impressive pyramid. It was carefully designed in every detail to represent the sacred mountain of snakes of the land of Coatepec, so important in Aztec religion and mythology. This mountain was the place where Coatlicue (earth) gave birth to her son Huitzilopochtli (sun), who defeated the other gods (stars) led by his sister Coyolxauqui (moon). The Huitzilopochtli temple was built on top of the pyramid along with another in honor of the rain god Tlaloc. Further associations with the myth are the serpentine sculptures lining the base and large Coyolxauqui stone, carved in c. 1473 AD, also found at the base of the pyramid and representing in relief the dismembered body of a fallen goddess. The stone, along with other sculptures such as the Tisok Stone, linked this cosmic image to the modern defeat of local enemies. In the case of the Coyolhauhica stone, the defeat of Tlatelolca is mentioned. Finally, the mayor of the Templo was itself a repository of art, for when its interior was explored, a vast array of sculptures and art objects were discovered buried with the remains of the dead, and in many cases these works work that the Aztecs themselves collected from cultures older than theirs own.

Temples praising the Aztec view of the world were also built in conquered territories. The Aztecs generally left existing political and administrative structures in place, but they imposed their own gods in a hierarchy above local deities, and this was largely done through architecture and art, supported by sacrificial rites at these new sacred sites, typically building on previous sacred ones. locations and often in spectacular settings such as mountain tops.

The Aztec imagery spread throughout the empire includes far less well-known deities than Huitzilopochtli, and there are a surprising number of examples of nature and agricultural gods. Perhaps the most famous are the reliefs of the water goddess Chalchiuhtlicue on the Malinche hill near ancient Tula. These and other works of Aztec art were most often produced by local artists and may have been commissioned by authorities representing the state or by private colonists from the Aztec center. Architectural art, cave paintings of gods, animals and shields and other objects of art were found throughout the empire from Puebla to Veracruz and especially around cities, hills, springs and caves. Moreover, these works tend to be unique, indicating the absence of any organized workshops.

MASTERPIECES
The large circular stone of Tizoc (carved in 1485 AD from basalt) is a masterful mixture of cosmic mythology and realpolitik. It was originally used as a surface for human sacrifice, and since these victims were usually defeated warriors, it is fitting that the reliefs around the edge of the stone depict the Aztec ruler Tizoc attacking warriors from Matlazzinc, an area conquered by Tizoc in the late 15th century AD. The vanquished are also depicted as Chichimecs, that is, landless barbarians, while the victors wear the noble dress of the revered ancient Toltec. The upper surface of the stone with a diameter of 2.67 m depicts an eight-pointed solar disk. The Tizoc Stone is now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

The massive basalt statue of Coatlicue (carved during the last half-century of Aztec rule) is widely considered one of the finest examples of Aztec sculpture. The goddess is represented in a terrifying form with two snake heads, clawed feet and hands, a necklace of dismembered hands and human hearts with a skull pendant and a skirt of writhing snakes. Possibly one of four people and representing a revelation of female power and terror, the 3.5m tall statue leans slightly forward so that the overall dramatic effect of the piece is so emotional that it is understandable why the statue was actually reburied several times after its original excavation in 1790 year. The Coatlicue statue is now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

The Sun Stone, also known as the Calendar Stone (despite the fact that it is not functional), must be the most recognizable artistic object created by any of the great civilizations of Mesoamerica. Discovered in the 18th century AD. near the cathedral in Mexico City, the stone was carved c. 1427 AD E. And shows the solar disk, which represents the five successive worlds of the sun from Aztec mythology. The basalt stone, 3.78 m in diameter and almost a meter thick, was once part of the Templo Mayor complex in Tenochtitlan. In the center of the stone is an image of either the sun god Tonatiuh (Day of the Sun), or Iohualtonatiuh (Night Sun), or the primordial earth monster Tlaltehuhtli, in the latter case representing the final destruction of the world when the fifth sun fell on the Earth. Around the central face at four points are four more suns, which successively replaced each other after the gods Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca fought for control of the cosmos until the age of the 5th Sun was reached. On either side of the central face are two jaguar heads or paws, each holding a heart, representing the earthly realm. The two heads in the lower center represent fire snakes, and their bodies run around the perimeter of the stone, each ending in a tail. The four cardinal and intercardinal directions are also indicated by major and minor dots, respectively.

As one of the last examples of the wealth of Aztec art that survived the best destructive efforts of their conquerors, there is an eagle warrior from Tenochtitlan. This figure appears to be about to flee, is in terracotta and was made from four separate pieces. This Knight of Needles wears a helmet representing a bird of prey, has wings and even clawed feet. Remnants of plaster suggest that the figure was once covered with real feathers for an even more life-like effect. Initially he would stand with a partner, on either side of the doorway.

CONCLUSION
After the fall of the Aztec Empire, local art production declined.

The culture of the ancient Aztecs in brief

However, some Aztec designs lived on in the works of local artists hired by Augustinian monks to decorate their new churches in the 16th century AD. Manuscript and pen production continued, but not until the late 18th century AD. interest in the art and history of Precolumbus would have led to a more systematic exploration of what lies beneath the foundations of modern Mexican cities. Gradually, a growing number of Aztec artifacts revealed that there was ever any doubt, proof that the Aztecs were among the most ambitious, creative, and eclectic artists that Mesoamerica has ever produced.

112. Aztec myths in religious and cultural traditions

Temples in honor of the gods. The legends and myths of the Aztecs were closely connected with the religious life of this people. Magnificent temples raised to the tops of the pyramids were dedicated to the numerous gods of the Aztec pantheon. In the center of the Aztec capital there was a giant truncated five-step pyramid. The area of ​​its base probably reached 1000 m2. At the top of the pyramid, at an altitude of approximately 30 m, there were two temples. Staircases of 114 steps led to the sanctuaries, located in such a way that the procession going up at each ledge would go around the building. According to the Spaniards, one of them contained a giant image of Huitzilopochtli, decorated with a chain of gold and silver hearts. There was probably a sanctuary of Tezcatlipoca nearby. Huge statues of deities were placed in front of the altars, on which offerings were placed.

During the magnificent celebrations held twice a year, a huge image of Huitzilopochtli was made from bread dough with honey. After performing religious rituals, the participants of the holiday in a solemn atmosphere divided it into pieces and ate it.

Finds in Teotihuacan. In the place where the Sun and Moon were once born, the Indians, the predecessors of the Aztecs, erected pyramids and built majestic temples. Archaeologists have excavated the giant Pyramid of the Sun and its smaller copy - the Pyramid of the Moon. The height of the Pyramid of the Sun may have reached 71 meters. 765 thousand cubic meters of building material were laid in it. Once upon a time there was a temple on its top, but today practically nothing remains of it. The majestic structure captured the imagination of the Aztecs. They considered him the creation of giants. The Temple of Quetzalcoatl was discovered not far from the Pyramid of the Sun. It was decorated with snake heads.

Human sacrifice

Sacrifices. If the legend about the birth of the Sun and Moon indicated that the gods sacrificed themselves for the sake of people, then the conclusion followed from this - people should sacrifice the most dear and valuable to the gods. In order to supply the gods with energy and thereby postpone the inevitable death of the human race, they must be fed with the blood of people. Sacrifice, the Aztecs believed, was necessary to maintain life on earth: human blood nourished the Sun, caused rain and ensured human existence on earth.

In some rituals, a chosen one was sacrificed, who had the honor of embodying a deity. The Aztecs had a widespread custom - every year they elected a handsome young man who had no physical disabilities, who was considered the embodiment of Tezcatlipoca. He was treated like a deity, satisfying his every desire, and after a year he was solemnly sacrificed.

Bloody ritual. Often the priests killed the victim by ripping open the chest with a knife and tearing out the heart. Four priests, painted black and wearing black robes, grabbed the victim by the arms and legs and threw him onto the sacrificial stone. The fifth priest, dressed in purple robes, ripped open her chest with a sharp obsidian dagger and with his hand tore out her heart, which he then threw at the foot of the statue of the god. Almost every day a holiday of some god was celebrated, so human blood flowed continuously.

In some cases, the Aztecs limited themselves to bloodletting using the thorns of the maguey plant.

Victims on fire. No less wild and terrible was the cult of the fire god Huehueteotl.

The most important and significant achievements of the Aztecs

In honor of him, the priests lit a huge fire in the temple and, having tied up the prisoners of war, threw them into the fire and slowly burned them. Sometimes the Aztecs staged “gladiator fights”: they tied the captive to a sacrificial stone and gave him a wooden weapon with which he had to defend himself from the attacks of many well-armed warriors.

On special occasions, women and children were sacrificed. Women who fell into a state of ecstasy after performing ritual dances for many hours turned into an offering to the goddess of the earth. The priests killed babies bought from poor parents with knives during a drought, hoping that the rain god Tlaloc would have mercy and give the fields the necessary moisture.

The Aztec state constantly had to worry about providing victims to the insatiable gods. During the solemn consecration of the temple of the god of war in Tenochtitlan, held in 1486, 20 thousand captives were killed, and at the coronation of one of the last rulers - Montezuma - 12 thousand soldiers died.

Myths in art and literature. Aztec mythology had a significant impact on the fine arts, literature, and philosophy of this people. In honor of the gods, the Aztecs performed various ritual dances, religious dramas and composed poetic hymns. Here is a fragment of one of them, addressed to the goddess of corn and fertility, Chicomecoatl:

O venerable goddess of the seven ears! Arise, awaken! O our mother, you are leaving us today, You are leaving us orphans, You are going to your country Tlalocan!

Calendar stone

"Calendar stone". At the end of the 15th century. The main temple of the Aztec capital was decorated with an amazing stone disk - the “Calendar Stone” (“Stone of the Sun”). It was a gray-black basalt disk with a diameter of 3.66 m and weighing almost 24 tons. It depicted the signs of the five times (five Suns), which are described in legends. In the middle of the stone was an image of the Fifth Sun. There were concentric circles around him. One of them contains the signs of the twenty days of the Aztec calendar. In the next circle were the signs "turquoise" and "jade", meaning the words "jewel" and "sky". Behind them were symbols of stars that crossed the rays of the sun. Two large fiery snakes, symbolizing time, bordered the stone.

When the conquistador conquerors entered Mexico, the “Calendar Stone” was thrown from the top of the pyramid. The Europeans feared that upon seeing him, the Indians would try to return to their old lives. Therefore, the stone was buried in the ground. By chance, an amazing creation of the Aztecs was discovered in the 18th century. Today, the “Calendar Stone” occupies a place of honor among the exhibits of the National Historical Museum in the capital of Mexico.

The Aztecs and modern Mexico. The memory of the Aztecs and their legendary wanderings remained even after their beautiful capital was destroyed by the conquering conquistadors, and in its place the modern city of Mexico City arose. One of the most beautiful squares in the city is called “The Square of Three Cultures”. One part of it has been turned into a museum where you can see Aztec buildings found by archaeologists.

The image of an eagle sitting on a cactus with a snake in its beak can today be seen on the state emblem of the Mexican Republic. The highest order of this country is called the “Aztec Eagle” (“Aguila Azteca”).

Economy. The basis of the Aztec diet was corn, beans, pumpkin, numerous varieties of chili peppers, tomatoes and other vegetables, as well as chia and amaranth seeds, various fruits from the tropical zone and the prickly pear-shaped nopal cactus growing in semi-deserts. Plant foods were supplemented with meat from domesticated turkeys and dogs, game, and fish. From all these components, the Aztecs knew how to prepare very nutritious and healthy stews, cereals, and sauces. From cocoa beans they prepared a fragrant, foamy drink intended for the nobility. The alcoholic drink pulque was prepared from agave juice. Agave also provided wood fiber for making coarse clothing, ropes, nets, bags and sandals. The finer fiber was obtained from cotton that was cultivated outside the Valley of Mexico and imported into the Aztec capital. Only noble people had the right to wear clothes made of cotton fabrics. Men's hats and loincloths, women's skirts and blouses were often covered with intricate patterns. Located on the island of Tenochtitlan, it expanded with the “floating gardens” of chinampas. Aztec farmers built them in shallow water from tied baskets with silt and algae and strengthened them by lining the edges with willows. A network of interconnected canals formed between the artificial islands, which served for irrigation and transportation of goods and supported the habitat of fish and waterfowl. Agriculture on the Chinampas was possible only in the vicinity of Tenochtitlan and in the southern lakes, near the cities of Xochimilco and Chalco, since the springs here kept the water fresh, while in the central part of Lake Texcoco it was more saline and therefore unsuitable for agriculture. In the middle of the 15th century. The Aztecs built a powerful dam across the lake to retain fresh water for Tenochtitlan and protect the city from flooding. The engineering and architectural achievements of the Aztecs, who did not know pack animals, wheels and metal tools, were based solely on the efficient organization of labor. However, the Chinampas and the lands of the Valley of Mexico could not support the growing urban population. By 1519, from 150 to 200 thousand people lived in Tenochtitlan, the population of the second largest city of Texcoco reached 30 thousand, and in other cities there lived from 10 to 25 thousand people. The share of the aristocracy increased, and among other urban strata a significant proportion were made up of those who consumed but did not produce food: artisans, traders, scribes, teachers, priests and military leaders. Products were delivered to cities as tribute collected from conquered peoples, or brought by traders and surrounding farmers to be sold at the market. In large cities, markets functioned daily, and in small cities they opened every five or twenty days. The largest market in the Aztec state was organized in the satellite city of Tenochtitlan - Tlatelolco: according to the Spanish conquistador, from 20 to 25 thousand people gathered here every day.

You could buy anything here - from tortillas and feathers to precious stones and slaves. Barbers, porters and judges were always at the service of visitors, monitoring the order and fairness of transactions. The conquered peoples regularly, once every three months or six months, paid tribute to the Aztecs. They delivered food, clothing, military vestments, polished jadeite beads and bright feathers of tropical birds to the cities of the Triple Alliance, and also provided various services, including escorting prisoners designated for sacrifice. Traders undertook long and dangerous journeys to bring valuable goods to Aztec cities, and many made considerable wealth. Merchants often served as informants and ambassadors to lands beyond the empire's borders.

Social organization. Aztec society was strictly hierarchical and was divided into two main classes - the hereditary aristocracy and the plebs. The Aztec nobility lived in luxury in magnificent palaces and had many privileges, including the wearing of special clothes and insignia and polygamy, through which alliances were established with the aristocracy of other city-states. The nobility were destined for high positions and the most prestigious activities; it consisted of military leaders, judges, priests, teachers and scribes. The lower class consisted of farmers, fishermen, artisans, and traders. In Tenochtitlan and neighboring cities they lived in special neighborhoods called "calpulli" - a kind of community. Each calpulli had his own plot of land and his own patron god, his own school, paid a community tax and fielded warriors. Many calpulli were formed by professional affiliation. For example, bird feather craftsmen, stone carvers or traders lived in special areas. Some farmers were assigned to the estates of aristocrats, who were paid more in labor and taxes than the state. However, for all their strength, class barriers could be overcome. Most often, the path to the top was opened by military valor and the capture of prisoners on the battlefield. Sometimes the son of a commoner, dedicated to a temple, eventually became a priest. Skilled artisans who made luxury goods or merchants could, despite the lack of inheritance rights, earn the favor of the ruler and become rich. Slavery was common in Aztec society. As punishment for theft or non-payment of debt, the culprit could be temporarily given into slavery to the victim. It often happened when a person sold himself or members of his family into slavery under agreed conditions. Sometimes slaves were bought in markets for human sacrifice.

Education and lifestyle. Until approximately the age of 15, children were educated at home. Boys mastered military affairs and learned how to manage a household, and girls, who were often married off at this age, knew how to cook, spin and run a household. In addition, both of them received professional skills in pottery and the art of making bird feathers. Most teenagers started school at age 15, although some started school at age 8. The children of the nobility were sent to Kalmekak, where, under the guidance of priests, they studied military affairs, history, astronomy, government, social institutions, and rituals. Their duties were also to collect firewood, clean churches, participate in various public works, and donate blood during religious ceremonies. The children of commoners attended the telpochkalli of their city quarter, where they were trained mainly in military affairs. Both boys and girls also went to schools called "cuicacalli" ("house of song"), designed to teach liturgical chants and dances. Women, as a rule, were involved in raising children and housework. Some studied crafts and midwifery, or were initiated into religious sacraments, after which they became priestesses. Upon reaching the age of 70, men and women were surrounded by honor and received a number of privileges, including the permission to drink the alcoholic drink pulque without restrictions. Belief in life after death was accompanied by certain ideas about what awaits the deceased. A warrior who died in battle or was sacrificed had the honor of accompanying the Sun on its path from sunrise to zenith. Women who died in childbirth - so to speak, on their battlefield - accompanied the Sun from zenith to sunset. Drowned people and those killed by lightning ended up in a blooming paradise, the abode of the rain god Tlalocan. Most of the dead Aztecs, it was believed, did not go beyond the lower underworld, Mictlan, where the god and goddess of death ruled.

Wars of conquest and empire management. Each Aztec city-state had one or more rulers called tlatoani (orator). Power was hereditary and passed from brother to brother or from father to son. However, the inheritance of honorary titles did not occur automatically, but required the approval of the highest circles of the city nobility. Thus, the legitimacy of the power of each new ruler was ensured both by the divine right of inheritance and by public recognition of his merits. The rulers lived in luxury, but not in idleness, since they were obliged to administer, pronounce verdicts in complex legal cases, oversee the proper performance of religious rituals and protect their subjects. As some city-states fell under the rule of others, some rulers were considered superior to others, and the ruler of Tenochtitlan was recognized as the main one. In the service of the rulers were advisers, military leaders, priests, judges, scribes and other officials. Imperial conquests required the expansion of the bureaucracy to include tribute collectors, governors and garrison commanders. The conquered peoples enjoyed relative freedom. City-states were generally allowed to maintain ruling dynasties as long as tribute was paid carefully. New territories became part of the empire in various ways - some Tenochka peoples were conquered and forced to regularly pay tribute, others were persuaded to an alliance through negotiations, marriage ties and gifts. City-states conquered by the triple alliance in the early era of its existence, by the beginning of the 16th century. were already deeply integrated into the imperial structure. Their rulers participated in the tenochki's wars of conquest, receiving rewards in the form of titles and lands. War was the most important sphere of life of the Aztecs. Successful wars enriched the empire and provided opportunities for individual warriors to move up the social ladder. The main valor was considered to be the capture of a prisoner for sacrifice; a warrior who captured four enemy warriors was promoted in rank.

Religion. The Aztec polytheistic pantheon included many gods and goddesses. The demiurge gods are represented by the mysterious, unpredictable Tezcatlipoca ("Smoking Mirror"), the god of fire Xiutecutli and the famous Quetzalcoatl ("Feathered Serpent"), "who gave maize to people." Since the life of the Aztecs largely depended on agriculture, they worshiped the gods of rain, fertility, maize, etc. Gods of war, such as Huitzilopochtli of the Tenoches, were associated with the Sun. The Aztecs erected temples for each deity, where priests and priestesses performed his cult. The main temple of Tenochtitlan (46 m high) was topped by two sanctuaries dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and the rain god Tlaloc. This temple rose in the middle of a vast fenced area where there were other temples, chambers of warriors, a priestly school and a court for a ritual ball game. Elaborate religious rituals included festivals, fasting, chants, dances, the burning of incense and rubber, and ritual drama, often involving human sacrifice.

There were two main calendars: Tzolkin - “year of the Moon” - 260 days and Haab - “year of the Sun” - 365 days. Scientist L. Schulze-Jena suggested that the duration of Tzolkin was determined by the period of pregnancy and birth of a person. The third element of the calendar system was the “calendar circle”, consisting of 18,980 days, and the fourth was the long count of “katuns” of 20 years from the original date of 3113 BC. e. The end of each cycle was celebrated with grandiose holidays. The months in the calendar consisted of 20 days, the year had 18 months and 5 unnamed days. The year began on December 23, and every fourth year was considered unlucky or a leap year because it had an “extra” month.

The sacred numbers in the Mayan calendar and science were 13, 20, etc. There was a base-2 system of calculations using the concept of zero. When recording, numbers were indicated by dots and dashes. Counting boards were used for calculations. Special signs recorded numbers in tens and hundreds of millions. Why they needed such complex calculations is another cultural mystery. There are more than 400 known types of medicine used by the Mayans, many of which are used in modern medicine. The study of anatomy made it possible to widely use surgical operations and treat tumors. Struggle

With paganism of the Indians, which contributed to the destruction of their books, led

To oblivion of many scientific achievements. They are being revived and rethought in our time.

5.3. Aztec culture

The Aztecs (or Tenochki) came to the territory of modern Mexico along with other warring tribes. From a nomadic way of life they switched to a settled way of life, settling in the Valley of Mexico in the 13th century, and became rulers, creating in 1427 the union of city-states “Triple League”. It was a slave-owning empire, and the name "Aztec" spread to

Section II HISTORY OF WORLD CULTURE

all carriers of the culture of their state. However, the development of their civilization was interrupted during the conquest. In 1519, the Spaniard E. Cortes led a military expedition to the area where the Aztecs lived and was received like a god. This mission ended with the ruin of their empire. In 1521 The Spaniards executed the last ruler of the country, plundered the capital and other cities. A new European-style city of Mexico City was built from stone blocks removed from Indian buildings.

Amazed by the new world that appeared before them, the Spaniards preserved information about it in historical works and ethnographic descriptions, such as “The True History of the Conquest of New Spain” (12 books) by the monk B. de Saahun. This was information about the daily life of the Indians, cults and rituals, describing them from the point of view of a Christian of European civilization.

The pagan mythology of the Aztecs represented the whole world as a struggle between two opposite principles: light - darkness, heat - cold, etc. From the two parts of the god - the monster Tlaltecuhtli, a Universe emerged, where numerous deities ruled. The Aztec pantheon consisted of various groups of gods: the elements and rain; the sun, the night sky and the creator of the world; astral gods, as well as the deity of the sacred drink octli; death and the underworld, and this system is completed by the fifth group of gods - the creators.

The main one in the pantheon was the sun god Huitzilopochtli. The Aztecs themselves were called “children of the Sun”, to whom human hearts were brought to the altar. The fire deity Huehueteotl demanded the burning of victims, the fertility god Tlaloc was given the lives of children, and women were sacrificed to the Earth goddess. Millions of people were sacrificed to the altar of the Aztec gods. The Indians constantly fought for the benefit of their gods, who needed human blood - “divine moisture.” This food supported divine life.

Mythology, like the entire Aztec culture, was formed under the influence of the Toltecs. This became their common god Quetzalcoatl or the “Feathered Serpent.” He

Section II HISTORY OF WORLD CULTURE

was a hero, ruler, priest and god. The unusual, according to legend, image of this light-skinned god became the reason for the special attitude of the Aztecs towards the Spaniard Hernan Cortez.

The central part of Aztec cities were the pyramid complexes. Their temples, lower than those of the Mayans, stand on massive pyramids. On the land of the Aztecs, there once stood a temple in the city of Cholula, the pyramid of which was larger than the famous Egyptian pyramid of Cheops. Sacred military rituals took place in the unique temple of Malinalco, carved into the rock over a period of 14 years. It is known that the Aztecs completed the construction of their temples in accordance with 52-year cycles that had mystical significance.

The most significant temple buildings were in the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. The main temple of the city had a height of 46 m, and on its top there were two sanctuaries - the gods of the Sun and Rain. There are legends about the emergence of the main city of the Aztecs. They tell about the wanderings of this people and the prophecies of the high priest, about the sign that became a symbol of the founding of the capital. It was an eagle sitting on a cactus and holding a snake in its talons. This sign led the Aztecs to a valley with a network of lakes, the area of ​​which was 6500 square meters. km. On the island of Lake Texcoco, an amazing city was built in 1325 with four quarters, artificial islands and dams. Subsequently, it was given the name “American Venice.” The one-story palace of the rulers of the empire, built of wood, had 300 rooms and was distinguished by comfort and luxury. In one of these secret rooms, the soldiers of E. Cortes discovered the treasury of the empire.

In 1972–1982 Archaeological excavations were carried out in the capital of Mexico, which made it possible to discover and study more than 7,000 objects of Aztec material culture. Similar studies were carried out on sensational finds, such as the “Sun Stone” with a diameter of 3.5 m and a weight

Section II HISTORY OF WORLD CULTURE

24 tons, discovered in 1790. On this once colored disk, the astronomical and astrological ideas of the Aztecs were recorded.

The cult calendar of the Indians largely replicates the Mayan calendar. It was based on a 52-year cycle, ending with the holiday of the “New Fire”. The number of days in a year was divided into four periods in accordance with the cardinal directions. A special understanding of the calendar cycles of time and space influenced the worldview of the Aztecs. There were four kingdoms in the world of the living and in the abode of the dead. Warriors, merchants, sacrifices to the gods were sent to the eastern world, those who died during childbirth were sent to the western kingdom. The northern land was called Mictlan - here the souls of the dead wandered through the nine “circles of hell” for four years.

The Aztecs associated special festivals with the worship of the gods, “flower wars”, similar to modern military exercises, as well as a cult ball game. The Aztecs considered war to be one of the types of service to the gods, and prisoners brought from the battlefields were doomed to become victims of the Aztec gods.

The Aztecs divided the history of mankind into periods or eras: the first was the kingdom of the jaguars, who destroyed the giants; the second - the era of wind, ended with hurricanes, the period of fire ended with a worldwide fire. The era of water was destroyed by a flood, and the last, modern era will disappear as a result of a giant earthquake.

Such ideas of the Indians were inextricably linked with their religion, which served as the basis of education and upbringing in society. In schools at temples there was co-education of girls and boys. The priests taught the children of the aristocracy history, military affairs, astronomy, the basics of state and government, grammar and various writing systems.

Aztec pictographic writing relied on phonetic, hieroglyphic symbols and icons to convey the sound of words. The color of the drawing, which carried a semantic load, was of great importance. When recording

the name "Aztecs" was coined

Many people know that the Aztecs were very fond of chocolate, sacrificed large numbers of people to their pagan gods and were eventually defeated by the Spaniards. In the eyes of modern people, they appear as a warlike, barbaric people, largely due to the number of people they killed.

However, despite popular belief, they also had their own culture. Social Aztec formation was incredibly complex, and education, family and creativity played a large role in their society. Even their system of slavery was well developed and not at all like what people imagine when they hear about slavery.

In short, although at first glance they appear to be psychopaths, Aztecs not so simple. Below you can learn ten interesting facts about the Aztecs that will allow you to better understand their history and way of life.

10. Creativity

Despite the apparent savagery Aztecs– they were very creative people. The Aztecs were fond of sculpture and pottery, as well as artistic painting. They developed artistic symbols that were inscribed on Aztec warriors in the form of tattoos describing their achievements. They also loved poetry.

Aztecs engaged in team sports, in particular one of the most popular sports games among them was the Mesoamerican ball game. The game was played using a rubber ball, which was quite an advanced item for their time, and the matches took place on a field called Tlachtli. The main goal of the game is to throw the ball through a small stone hoop, but it was a very difficult game. The ball was not supposed to fall to the ground, and players could only touch it with their heads, elbows, knees and hips.

9. Compulsory schooling

Although the Aztecs and they placed great emphasis on the fact that parents themselves should teach their children correctly; they also had compulsory schooling for all children. Schools were different for boys and girls, and were also divided according to the students' belonging to different castes.

Children of the upper classes attended the Calmecac school, where they learned history, astronomy, art, and how to rule from priests. Boys of the lower castes studied at the Cuicacalli school, where they were prepared for military service. Girls were sent to separate schools, and much of the education consisted of learning household chores such as cooking and weaving.

8. Smitten by disease

Many people believe that the Spaniards defeated the Aztecs with the help of its superior military forces, but this is far from the truth. In fact, the first attacks of the Spaniards were successfully repelled, and they had to quickly retreat. The Aztecs had a good chance of defeating the Spaniards, and overall the war was an even battle.

We can safely say that if it were not for smallpox, which the Aztecs caught from Europeans, and from which most of their population, including their leaders, died, then the Aztecs They would hardly have lost the war against the Spaniards. The impact of European diseases was devastating - it is estimated that about twenty million Mexicans died in just 5 years from diseases brought by the Spaniards.

7. Wrong name

The Aztecs are known to us all by this name, but in fact they never called themselves that. The Western peoples who coined the name "Aztec" most likely took it from the name Aztlan, a mythical area in northern Mexico where the ancestors of the Aztecs supposedly lived in the 12th century. However, the Aztecs themselves called themselves Mexica (Mexica), from which the name of the country Mexico later came.

6. Advanced documentation system

The Aztecs had their own language called Nahuatl, whose alphabet was a type of pictographic writing. The knowledge of how to record information was known only among priests and specially trained scribes. Records were made on paper made from tree bark or deer skin. They usually wrote using coals, after which the notes were given different colors using vegetable juice and other materials.

The Aztecs kept tax records, kept historical documents, kept information about religious sacrifices and other ceremonies in writing, and even wrote poetry. Sometimes they collected the records into makeshift books, which they called codices.

5. Burial customs

We all know stories about what happens when something is built on a former Indian burial site, but Aztecs didn't worry when they had to build something on the graves of their ancestors. Moreover, the Aztecs quite often buried their ancestors either directly under their house or, at least, next to it.

If the deceased Aztec belonged to the upper strata of society, he was usually cremated. The Aztecs believed that cremation would help change the soul of a fallen warrior or ruler and thus quickly get them to their version of heaven. Sometimes the Aztecs killed a dog and buried or cremated it with a person so that it would help in the journey through the afterlife.

4. Selling children

Poor Aztecs selling their children was not considered unusual in their society. Moreover, everything was not limited to children; the poor sometimes sold themselves into slavery. In many cases, when someone became bankrupt and saw no other option, selling their children into slavery brought them some income, and if the child worked well and worked hard, they could eventually buy themselves out of slavery. Some remained slaves for most of their lives, which is not surprising since being a slave in Aztec society was not such a bad thing. Slaves could get married, have children, and even own their own piece of land.

3. Polygamy

Aztec Men were allowed to marry multiple wives, but there were several strict rules associated with such relationships. The first wife a man married was considered his "primary" wife and was the only one with whom he performed the wedding ceremony. The remaining wives were “secondary”, but they were officially recognized in the documents.

Although the first wife was considered the most important, a man was expected to treat all his wives with equal respect. The man was considered the head of the family, but women still had a fair amount of influence in the relationship and were treated well in Aztec society. Additional wives contributed to the family's wealth and were considered a sign of high status in society, allowing them to be highly respected in society. Divorces were allowed in some cases, but adultery by either party to the marriage was punishable by death.

2. Slavery

Slavery in Aztec society was different from the European system and operated according to different rules. Children of slaves were not automatically enslaved, and slaves were allowed to own anything—even their own slaves. If a slave ended up in the temple, they were freed, and they were also freed if they managed to escape from their master and step on human excrement. If a slave tried to run away, only his master or his relatives could chase him. Slaves could even buy their freedom. The Aztec system of slavery was unique and more akin to indentured servitude than the modern concept of slavery.

1. Human sacrifice

Although the most common theory about Aztec sacrifices says that they simply performed rituals dedicated to pagan gods, anthropologist Michael Harner thinks differently. According to Harner's estimates, Aztecs About 20,000 people were sacrificed annually. People who were sacrificed were often eaten during the ritual. Harner suggested that cannibalism disguised as sacrifice was due to the fact that the Aztec diet did not contain enough meat. The fact that the Aztecs ate each other due to protein starvation, of course, has not been proven, but signs of the existence of cannibalism are difficult to miss.

Aztec lifestyle

Economy. The basis of the Aztec diet was corn, beans, pumpkin, numerous varieties of chili peppers, tomatoes and other vegetables, as well as chia and amaranth seeds, various fruits from the tropical zone and the prickly pear-shaped nopal cactus growing in semi-deserts. Plant foods were supplemented with meat from domesticated turkeys and dogs, game, and fish. From all these components, the Aztecs knew how to prepare very nutritious and healthy stews, cereals, and sauces. From cocoa beans they prepared a fragrant, foamy drink intended for the nobility. The alcoholic drink pulque was prepared from agave juice.

Agave also provided wood fiber for making coarse clothing, ropes, nets, bags and sandals. The finer fiber was obtained from cotton that was cultivated outside the Valley of Mexico and imported into the Aztec capital. Only noble people had the right to wear clothes made of cotton fabrics. Men's hats and loincloths, women's skirts and blouses were often covered with intricate patterns.

Located on the island of Tenochtitlan, it expanded with the “floating gardens” of chinampas. Aztec farmers built them in shallow water from tied baskets with silt and algae and strengthened them by lining the edges with willows. A network of interconnected canals formed between the artificial islands, which served for irrigation and transportation of goods and supported the habitat of fish and waterfowl. Agriculture on the Chinampas was possible only in the vicinity of Tenochtitlan and in the southern lakes, near the cities of Xochimilco and Chalco, since the springs here kept the water fresh, while in the central part of Lake Texcoco it was more saline and therefore unsuitable for agriculture. In the middle of the 15th century. The Aztecs built a powerful dam across the lake to retain fresh water for Tenochtitlan and protect the city from flooding. The engineering and architectural achievements of the Aztecs, who did not know pack animals, wheels and metal tools, were based solely on the efficient organization of labor.

However, the Chinampas and the lands of the Valley of Mexico could not support the growing urban population. By 1519, from 150 to 200 thousand people lived in Tenochtitlan, the population of the second largest city of Texcoco reached 30 thousand, and in other cities there lived from 10 to 25 thousand people. The share of the aristocracy increased, and among other urban strata a significant proportion were made up of those who consumed but did not produce food: artisans, traders, scribes, teachers, priests and military leaders.

Products were delivered to cities as tribute collected from conquered peoples, or brought by traders and surrounding farmers to be sold at the market. In large cities, markets functioned daily, and in small cities they opened every five or twenty days. The largest market in the Aztec state was organized in the satellite city of Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco: according to the Spanish conquistador, from 20 to 25 thousand people gathered here every day. You could buy anything here - from tortillas and feathers to precious stones and slaves. Barbers, porters and judges were always at the service of visitors, monitoring the order and fairness of transactions.

The conquered peoples regularly, once every three months or six months, paid tribute to the Aztecs. They delivered food, clothing, military vestments, polished jadeite beads and bright feathers of tropical birds to the cities of the Triple Alliance, and also provided various services, including escorting prisoners designated for sacrifice.

Traders undertook long and dangerous journeys to bring valuable goods to Aztec cities, and many made considerable wealth. Merchants often served as informants and ambassadors to lands beyond the empire's borders.

Social organization. Aztec society was strictly hierarchical and was divided into two main classes - the hereditary aristocracy and the plebs. The Aztec nobility lived in luxury in magnificent palaces and had many privileges, including the wearing of special clothes and insignia and polygamy, through which alliances were established with the aristocracy of other city-states. The nobility were destined for high positions and the most prestigious activities; it consisted of military leaders, judges, priests, teachers and scribes.

The lower class consisted of farmers, fishermen, artisans, and traders. In Tenochtitlan and neighboring cities they lived in special neighborhoods called “calpulli” - a kind of community. Each calpulli had his own plot of land and his own patron god, his own school, paid a community tax and fielded warriors. Many calpulli were formed by professional affiliation. For example, bird feather craftsmen, stone carvers or traders lived in special areas. Some farmers were assigned to the estates of aristocrats, who were paid more in labor and taxes than the state.

However, for all their strength, class barriers could be overcome. Most often, the path to the top was opened by military valor and the capture of prisoners on the battlefield. Sometimes the son of a commoner, dedicated to a temple, eventually became a priest. Skilled artisans who made luxury goods or merchants could, despite the lack of inheritance rights, earn the favor of the ruler and become rich.

Slavery was common in Aztec society. As punishment for theft or non-payment of debt, the culprit could be temporarily given into slavery to the victim. It often happened when a person sold himself or members of his family into slavery under agreed conditions. Sometimes slaves were bought in markets for human sacrifice.

Education and lifestyle. Until approximately the age of 15, children were educated at home. Boys mastered military affairs and learned how to manage a household, and girls, who were often married off at this age, knew how to cook, spin and run a household. In addition, both of them received professional skills in pottery and the art of making bird feathers.

Most teenagers started school at age 15, although some started school at age 8. The children of the nobility were sent to Kalmekak, where, under the guidance of priests, they studied military affairs, history, astronomy, government, social institutions, and rituals. Their duties were also to collect firewood, clean churches, participate in various public works, and donate blood during religious ceremonies. The children of commoners attended the telpochkalli of their city quarter, where they were trained mainly in military affairs. Both boys and girls also went to schools called “cuicacalli” (“house of song”), designed to teach liturgical chants and dances.

Women, as a rule, were involved in raising children and housework. Some studied crafts and midwifery, or were initiated into religious sacraments, after which they became priestesses. Upon reaching the age of 70, men and women were surrounded by honor and received a number of privileges, including the permission to drink the alcoholic drink pulque without restrictions.

Belief in life after death was accompanied by certain ideas about what awaits the deceased. A warrior who died in battle or was sacrificed had the honor of accompanying the Sun on its path from sunrise to zenith. Women who died in childbirth - so to speak, on their battlefield - accompanied the Sun from zenith to sunset. Drowned people and those killed by lightning ended up in a blooming paradise, the abode of the rain god Tlalocan. Most of the dead Aztecs, it was believed, did not go beyond the lower underworld, Mictlan, where the god and goddess of death ruled.

Wars of conquest and empire management. Each Aztec city-state had one or more rulers called tlatoani (orator). Power was hereditary and passed from brother to brother or from father to son. However, the inheritance of honorary titles did not occur automatically, but required the approval of the highest circles of the city nobility. Thus, the legitimacy of the power of each new ruler was ensured both by the divine right of inheritance and by public recognition of his merits. The rulers lived in luxury, but not in idleness, since they were obliged to administer, pronounce verdicts in complex legal cases, oversee the proper performance of religious rituals and protect their subjects. As some city-states fell under the rule of others, some rulers were considered superior to others, and the ruler of Tenochtitlan was recognized as the main one.

In the service of the rulers were advisers, military leaders, priests, judges, scribes and other officials. Imperial conquests required the expansion of the bureaucracy to include tribute collectors, governors and garrison commanders. The conquered peoples enjoyed relative freedom. City-states were generally allowed to maintain ruling dynasties as long as tribute was paid carefully. New territories became part of the empire in various ways - some Tenochka peoples were conquered and forced to regularly pay tribute, others were persuaded to an alliance through negotiations, marriage ties and gifts. City-states conquered by the triple alliance in the early era of its existence, by the beginning of the 16th century. were already deeply integrated into the imperial structure. Their rulers participated in the tenochki's wars of conquest, receiving rewards in the form of titles and lands.

War was the most important sphere of life of the Aztecs. Successful wars enriched the empire and provided opportunities for individual warriors to move up the social ladder. The main valor was considered to be the capture of a prisoner for sacrifice; a warrior who captured four enemy warriors was promoted in rank.

The main temple of Tenochtitlan (reconstruction).

Religion. The Aztec polytheistic pantheon included many gods and goddesses. The demiurge gods are represented by the mysterious, unpredictable Tezcatlipoca (“Smoking Mirror”), the god of fire Xiutecutli and the famous Quetzalcoatl (“Feathered Serpent”), “who gave maize to people.” Since the life of the Aztecs largely depended on agriculture, they worshiped the gods of rain, fertility, maize, etc. Gods of war, such as Huitzilopochtli of the Tenoches, were associated with the Sun.

The Aztecs erected temples for each deity, where priests and priestesses performed his cult. The main temple of Tenochtitlan (46 m high) was topped by two sanctuaries dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and the rain god Tlaloc. This temple rose in the middle of a vast fenced area where there were other temples, chambers of warriors, a priestly school and a court for a ritual ball game. Elaborate religious rituals included festivals, fasting, chants, dances, the burning of incense and rubber, and ritual drama, often involving human sacrifice.

According to Aztec mythology, the Universe was divided into thirteen heavens and nine underworlds. The created world went through four eras of development, each of which ended with the death of the human race: the first - from jaguars, the second - from hurricanes, the third - from a worldwide fire, the fourth - from a flood. The contemporary Aztec era of the “Fifth Sun” was supposed to end with terrible earthquakes.

Human sacrifice, which formed the most important part of Aztec religious rites, was practiced in order to supply the gods with energy and thereby delay the inevitable death of the human race. Sacrifice, the Aztecs believed, was necessary to maintain a sustainable life cycle; human blood nourished the Sun, caused rains and ensured the earthly existence of man. Some forms of sacrifice were limited to bloodletting through the thorns of the maguey plant, but often the victim was killed by the priests, ripping open the chest with a knife and tearing out the heart. In some rituals, the chosen one, who had the honor of embodying the deity, was sacrificed; in others, many captives were killed.

Achievements of science and art. The Aztecs had a cyclical account of time. They combined the solar 365-day calendar with the ritual 260-day calendar. According to the first, the year was divided into 18 months of 20 days each, to which 5 so-called were added at the end. unlucky days. The solar calendar was applied to the agricultural cycle and major religious practices. The ritual calendar, used for prophecies and predictions of human fate, contained 20 names of the days of the month (“rabbit”, “rain”, etc.) in combination with numbers from 1 to 13. The newborn, along with the name of the day of his birth (like “Two Deer" or "Ten Eagle") also received a prediction of his fate. Thus, it was believed that Two Rabbit would be a drunkard, and One Snake would earn fame and wealth. Both calendars were connected into a 52-year cycle, at the end of which the past years disappeared, just as the wind carries away a bundle of 52 reeds, and a new cycle began. The end of each 52-year cycle threatened the death of the Universe.

The Aztecs created an extensive corpus of oral literature, represented by the genres of epic, hymn and lyric poetry, religious chants, drama, legends and tales. This literature is also very diverse in tone and theme and ranges from glorifying military valor and the exploits of ancestors to contemplation and reflection on the essence of life and human destiny. Poetic exercises and debates were constantly practiced among the nobility.

The Aztecs proved themselves to be skilled builders, sculptors, stone carvers, potters, jewelers, and weavers. The art of making products from the bright feathers of tropical birds was especially revered. Feathers were used to decorate warriors' shields, clothes, standards, and headdresses. Jewelers worked in gold, jadeite, rock crystal and turquoise, showing extraordinary skill in creating mosaics and ornaments.

Literature:
Vaian J. History of the Aztecs. M., 1949
Leon-Portilla M. Nagua Philosophy. M., 1961
Kinzhalov R. The Art of Ancient America. M., 1962
Sodi D. Great cultures of Mesoamerica. M., 1985
History of the Literatures of Latin America, vol. 1. M., 1985
Daggers R. Eagle, quetzal and cross. M., 1991