Recent excavations have shown that in the 1st millennium BC. e. there was a settlement near modern city Nola and in the 7th century BC. e. approached the mouth. A new settlement - Pompeii - was founded by the Osci in the 6th century BC. e. Their name most likely goes back to the Oscan pumpe- five, and is known from the very foundation of the city, which indicates the formation of Pompeii as a result of the merger of five settlements. The division into 5 electoral districts remained in Roman time. According to another version, the name comes from the Greek pompe(triumphal procession): according to the legend about the founding of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum by the hero Hercules, he, having defeated the giant Geryon, solemnly marched through the city.
The early history of the city is little known. Surviving sources speak of clashes between the Greeks and Etruscans. For some time Pompeii belonged to Cumae, from the end of the 6th century BC. e. were under the influence of the Etruscans and were part of a league of cities led by Capua. Moreover, in 525 BC. e. A Doric temple was built in honor of the Greek gods. After the defeat of the Etruscans in Kita, Syracuse in 474 BC. e. The Greeks regained dominance in the region. In the 20s of the 5th century BC. e. together with other cities of Campania, were conquered by the Samnites. During the Second Samnite War, the Samnites were defeated by the Roman Republic, and Pompeii around 310 BC. e. became allies of Rome.
Of the 20,000 inhabitants of Pompeii, about 2,000 people died in the buildings and on the streets. Most of the residents left the city before the disaster, but the remains of the victims are also found outside the city. Therefore, the exact number of deaths is impossible to estimate.
Among those killed by the eruption was Pliny the Elder, who, out of scientific interest and a desire to help people suffering from the eruption, tried to approach Vesuvius on a ship and found himself in one of the centers of the disaster - at Stabia.
Excavations of the city
Wall painting and fresco styles
The inside walls of Roman houses were covered with frescoes, studied mostly from the examples of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae. The German scientist August Mau in 1882 proposed dividing Pompeii frescoes into 4 styles. Subsequently, with the discovery of other monuments, this classification was expanded to cover all Roman wall painting. The time frames given here are specific to Pompeii; dates may vary in Rome and other cities.
- Inlay or structural (- years BC) - characterized by rustication (laying or facing walls with stones with a rough, convex front surface) and painting imitating facing with marble slabs. Arose under the influence of Hellenistic art, reproductions of Greek paintings are often found.
- Architectural style (80 BC -14 AD) - columns, cornices, architectural compositions, landscapes were depicted on smooth walls, creating the illusion of volume and space receding into the distance. Human figures appear in the paintings, complex multi-figure compositions are created, often based on mythological subjects.
- Egyptianized or ornamental (from 14 AD) - a transition to flat ornaments, framed by paintings, usually of pastoral themes.
- Fantastic or perspective-ornamental (from 62 AD) - fantastic landscapes appear, the depicted architecture resembles theatrical scenery, ceasing to obey the laws of physics. Paintings depicting people become more dynamic.
City buildings
Forum
On either side of the staircase there were two triumphal arches. The western one was probably dedicated to Germanicus, while the eastern one was dismantled. Near the northern end of the temple there is an arch dedicated to Tiberius, in its niches facing the forum there were statues of Nero and Drusus.
Temple of Apollo
Along with the Doric temple in the triangular forum, this ancient temple Pompey. Some architectural details allow us to date it to BC. e. Presumably in the 2nd century BC. e. it was rebuilt, but nevertheless retained a characteristic feature of Greek architecture: a colonnade along the entire perimeter of the temple.
The temple faces the main entrance to the basilica and is surrounded by a portico painted with scenes from the Iliad. The temple itself is surrounded by 28 Corinthian columns, 2 of which are fully preserved. The floor is made using the same technique as the floor of the Temple of Jupiter. There is an altar in front of the stairs. A bronze statue of Apollo and a bust of Diana have also been preserved (the originals are in the Naples Museum, and there are copies in Pompeii). To the left of the altar, an Ionic column for a sundial was erected in the time of Augustus.
Temple of Fortuna Augustus and Arch of Caligula
It is located at the end of the Forum street, running from the Arch of Tiberius to the northwest. A small temple with a facade of 4 Corinthian columns was built at the expense of the duumvir Marcus Tullius on his own land. Inside the temple there are several niches for statues of Augustus, members of his family and, possibly, Tullius himself.
Behind the temple, the Forum street continues as the Mercury street. At its beginning there is a triumphal arch of Caligula (ruled in -41 AD), made of brick and lined with travertine (the remains of the cladding are preserved only at the base). An equestrian statue of the emperor was found next to the arch, probably located on it.
Other buildings
To the southwest of the Temple of Jupiter there were public latrines, warehouses for the grain trade (now archaeological finds are stored in them) and a weighing room - a storage place for the standards of Roman units of measurement, against which those used by traders in the forum were checked.
Complex of public buildings in the theater area
Triangular Forum
A triangular square surrounded by a colonnade of 95 Ionic columns. In the northern corner there was a propylaea with 6 Ionic columns, in the east it connected with the Samnite palaestra, the Great Theater and, along a long staircase, with the Quadriportico.
On the square there is a Greek temple from the 6th century BC. e. (so-called Doric Temple), dedicated to Hercules, the mythical founder of the city. The temple measured 21 by 28 m, was built of tuff, and a narrow staircase led to it from the south side. Behind the temple there was a sundial. It is surrounded on all sides by a colonnade: 7 columns on the short side and 11 on the long side.
Samnite palaestra
According to the dedicatory inscription, it was built by the duumvir Vivius Vinicius in the second half of the 2nd century BC. e.. It was surrounded on three sides by a portico, on the south side there was a pedestal where award ceremonies were held, and household premises were built on the west side. Due to its small size, by the Augustan era it could no longer accommodate everyone, after which the Great Palaestra was built.
Temple of Isis
In the center of the courtyard, surrounded by a portico with Corinthian columns, on a high plinth stood a temple from the end of the 2nd century BC. e., restored after the earthquake of 62 on behalf of the 6-year-old Popidius Celsinius by his father Popidius Ampliatus, who hoped in this way to promote the future political career of his son.
The façade of the temple is decorated with a portico 4 columns wide and 2 deep. On the sides there were niches with statues of Anubis and Harpocrates. There was also a container with water from the Nile in the temple.
Temple of Jupiter Meilichius
It was built back in the III-II century BC. e. and dedicated to Zeus, but was rebuilt and transferred to the cult of Jupiter in the 80s BC. e. Identical in shape to the Temple of Isis, but with a deeper inner sanctuary. Made of tuff, lined with marble.
According to another hypothesis, based on some finds on the territory of the temple, it was dedicated to Asclepius.
Quadriportic
The quadriportico (a square with a portico) served as a place where theater audiences gathered before the start of the performance and during intermissions. After the earthquake of 62, which destroyed the gladiator barracks in the northern part of the city, a quadriportico was adapted as a barracks. Weapons were found here, now stored in National Museum Naples.
Grand Theatre
The Bolshoi Theater, which became the cultural center of the city, was built in the 3rd-2nd centuries BC. e., using a natural slope to place seats for spectators. Under Augustus, the theater was expanded by the architect Marcus Artorius at the expense of Marcus Olkonius Rufus and Marcus Olkonius Celer by creating a superstructure above ground level supporting the upper rows of seats. As a result, it became capable of accommodating up to 5,000 spectators. It could have been covered with a canopy: the rings for it have survived to this day.
The bottom few rows ( ima cavea) were intended for noble citizens. Two balconies above the side entrances, also built by Marcus Artorius, are for priestesses and organizers of performances. The stage was decorated with columns, cornices and statues dating from after 62 AD.
Maly Theater
Amphitheater and Great Palaestra
Central Baths
Founded immediately after the earthquake of 62 AD. e., however, by 79 the pool had not been completed, and the portico of the palaestra had not even been started. The pipes through which water was supplied already existed, but the stoves were never built. They had a full set of halls, but only in one copy (without division into male and female sections).
Suburban thermal baths
Located 100 meters behind Sea Gate on an artificial terrace. Because of their position, they were found and plundered already in antiquity. Their interesting feature is the large windows overlooking the sea. The pools are decorated with frescoes depicting waterfalls and mountain caves, as well as mosaics. However, the baths are best known for the 16 erotic frescoes in the fourth style (including the only known Roman depiction of lesbian sex) found in the early 1990s in the apodyteria. Their presence gave rise to the hypothesis that a lupanarium functioned in the building on the second floor, which, however, is rejected by archaeologists who studied the baths and most historians.
Lupanarium
In addition to the lupanarium, there were at least 25 single rooms in the city intended for prostitution, often located above wine shops. The cost of this type of service in Pompeii was 2-8 asses. The staff was represented mainly by slaves of Greek or Oriental origin.
Industrial buildings
Providing food
In Pompeii, 34 bakeries were discovered that fully satisfied the needs of the townspeople and exported their products to neighboring settlements. Most famous Bakery Popidia Prisca And bakery on Stabius street, in which 5 hand mills have been preserved. There are two types of millstones: one fixed cone-shaped ( meta), another in the shape of an hourglass without a bottom or lid ( catillus), which was put on top of him. Grain was poured into the cavity of the upper chute, and it was driven by slaves or oxen. The millstones are made from volcanic rocks. Many bakeries did not have counters to sell bread, either supplying it in bulk, delivering it door to door, or selling it on the street by hand.
Also in Pompeii, fish sauce “garum” was produced, which was sold in large quantities to other cities. A whole workshop for its preparation was excavated, in which amphoras for transporting the product were preserved. The technology was as follows: fish, boned and ground, was kept in salt (sea) water for several weeks. Often herbs, spices, and wine were added to it. They seasoned a wide variety of dishes with it.
In Pompeii, a system of thermopolis was developed (there were 89 establishments in total), which supplied people with hot food and allowed them to refuse to prepare it at home (many houses in Pompeii did not have a kitchen).
Crafts
One of the most important crafts in the city was the production of woolen fabrics. 13 wool processing workshops, 7 spinning and weaving workshops, 9 dyeing workshops were found. The most important production stage was wool felting, which was carried out in Ancient Rome fullons ( fullones). The peculiarities of the technology allowed them to also wash the clothes of the townspeople.
The most widely known is Pompeian fulling shop Stefania- a residential building rebuilt into a workshop. The fullons felted and washed the wool from animal sweat and dirt in egg-shaped vats, of which Stefanius had three. Dirty clothes were also cleaned there. Soda or urine that had been left for 1-2 weeks was used as a detergent, which saponified the fat in the fabric. A container for collecting urine, for example, stood in the Eumachia building in the Forum. Throwing wool or very dirty cloth into the vat, the fullon trampled it with his feet ( saltus fullonicus- dance of the fullons, as Seneca called this process).
Then the wool and fabric had to be thoroughly rinsed in large containers, of which Stefanius also had three. Relatively clean and delicate items in his fulling shop were washed in the former impluvium of his Tuscan atrium. In addition, in the fulling shop there were containers for bleaching and dyeing things. Ironing of clothes was also carried out here; there was even a special press for tunics.
In another fulling mill (there are 18 of them in Pompeii), located on Mercurius Street, frescoes were found that shed light on the entire technological process of fullons.
Residential buildings
The originals of most works of ancient Roman art (frescoes, mosaics) are exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. There are copies in the houses themselves.
House of the Tragic Poet
It is a typical Roman house of the 2nd century BC. e. and is famous for its mosaic floors and frescoes depicting scenes from Greek mythology. Located opposite the Forum Baths. Named after the mosaic laid out in the floor of a rehearsal of a tragic performance. At the entrance to the house there is a mosaic with the image of a dog and the inscription “Cave Canem” (“Beware of the dog”). On the sides of the entrance there were retail premises.
The walls of the atrium were decorated with images of Zeus and Hera, scenes from the Iliad. The frescoes were moved to the Archaeological Museum of Naples.
House of the Surgeon
One of the oldest Pompeian residential buildings, built in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. e. It received its name due to the fact that numerous surgical instruments were found in it. The facade is made of limestone blocks, the internal walls are made using opus africanum(vertical structures made of alternating vertical and horizontal blocks placed on top of each other, between which the wall was lined with smaller stones or bricks). Frescoes in the first and fourth styles have been preserved.
House of the Faun
The rich house, occupying the space between four streets - insulu (40 by 110 m), with an area of 3000 m² - is the most luxurious house in Pompeii. Presumably, it was built for Publius Sulla, the nephew of the conqueror of the city, whom he placed at the head of Pompeii.
On the threshold of the main entrance to the house there is a mosaic inscription “HAVE” (hello), from here one could go into the Etruscan (Tuscan) atrium, which has preserved to this day an impluvium (a shallow pool for collecting rainwater) with a rich geometric inlay of multi-colored marble and a figurine of a dancing Faun, who gave the house its name. The second entrance was located to the east and led to a second, tetrastyle (with a roof supported by 4 columns), atrium, apparently intended for guests.
House of the Vettii
A small but richly decorated house that belonged to the freedmen merchants Aulus Vettius Conviva and Aulus Vettius Restitutus. The wall painting was made after 62 in the fourth style. Through the entrance and vestibule, where there is a famous fresco of Priapus, one enters the atrium, the walls of which are decorated with friezes of cupids and psyches. The two wings of the atrium are decorated with medallions with the heads of Medusa and Silenus (right) and a fresco with fighting roosters (left). Another entrance leads here from the street through outbuildings.
To the right is a second small atrium with a lararium (separate sanctuary). The peristyle, rectangular in plan, is perpendicular to the direction of the main entrance. It is decorated with Doric columns and wall paintings. The peristyle was completely restored, even the flower beds were recreated using the remaining traces. The triclinium opens into the peristyle, the walls of which are painted with cupids imitating human activities. Scenes of trade, chariot racing, metalworking, weaving, grape harvesting, and festivals are visible. Ibid. a large number of frescoes illustrating episodes of myths and images of gods. In the hall to the left of the peristyle is young Hercules strangling snakes.
House of Gilded Cupids
Graffiti on the wall of the house names its owner as Poppaea Abito, a relative of Poppaea, Nero's second wife.
The peristyle was probably used for theatrical performances: one of the colonnades is raised like a stage. Medallions and masks were hung between the columns. The peristyle garden is filled with busts and bas-reliefs; in its northern part there is a lararium, in the southern part there is a sanctuary of Isis. The tablinium and triclinium are decorated with frescoes based on Greek myths. Discs with cupids on gold leaves are inserted into the wall of one of the rooms.
House of Menander
House of Moralist and House of Pinaria Ceriale
Moralist's House is located near the house of Lorey Tiburtina. So named because of the inscriptions in the summer triclinium (white on black):
- Keep your feet clean and do not dirty your linens and beds,
- Respect women and avoid obscene speech,
- Refrain from anger and fighting.
Finally, the conclusion: “Otherwise, go back to your home.”
Located next door house of Pinaria Zeriale, owned by a jeweler. During its excavations, more than a hundred precious stones were found.
House of Julia Felix
It occupies one of the largest insulas in the city, but only a third of it is built up, 2/3 are gardens. Part of the house with bathhouses was rented out.
House of the Garden of Hercules (House of the Perfumer)
It was a relatively small house. The entrance led to a corridor flanked by two cubicles and ending in an atrium. Behind the atrium there were several more rooms and a huge garden, laid out in the 1st century BC. e. There are 5 similar houses on the site. In the garden there was a lararium with a statue of Hercules, from which the whole house took its name.
It was excavated in 1954, but only as a result of research by employees of the University of Maryland it was discovered that the garden was intended for growing plants from which perfumes and fragrant oils were produced. Perhaps flower garlands were also made here. As a result of these studies, the house received a second name - the Perfumer's House.
City fortifications
The walls of Pompeii are 3220 m long and have 7 gates (the existence of an eighth is controversial). Built along its entire perimeter already in the 6th-5th centuries BC. e. (at that time most of the fortified area had not yet been built up, but was occupied by gardens and vegetable gardens) made of limestone and tuff, filled with earth inside. Under Samnite rule, a mound was made on the inside, allowing the defenders to climb to the top of the walls and providing them with additional strength. In the 3rd century BC. e. this embankment is reinforced with stone. 12 towers on the most vulnerable northern and eastern sides were added in the 2nd and early 1st centuries BC. uh..
The Herculan (or Salt) Gate was completely rebuilt during the Augustan era, losing its protective functions and becoming more like a three-span triumphal arch. Between them and the Vesuvian Gate, damage caused by Sulla's siege weapons is visible on the city wall.
Everyone knows that on August 24, 79 AD, Vesuvius erupted, and as a result of this eruption, the ancient cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. But how did this dating come about? Who, how and when decided that Pompeii died from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the 1st century AD? All official literature, textbooks, tourist guides, the entire Internet are replete with reprinted from each other almost word for word, a fairy tale about Pliny the Younger’s letters to Tacitus, where he describes the eruption of Vesuvius, which allegedly led to the death of Pompeii. Why a fairy tale? Because even without asking questions about the reality of Pliny and Tacitus as historical characters and discrepancies in the dates and texts of translations from different years, it is enough to pay attention at least to the fact that Pliny the Younger does not mention Pompeii and Herculaneum in his letters, nor as coastal cities , nor, especially, as those who died together with his uncle, Pliny the Elder, as a result of the same catastrophe.
It should be noted that in all first printed editions there is no concept of “in what year” the eruption occurred and only later, when the years of life of the characters mentioned by Pliny are coordinated with the chronology Ancient World, adopted by other ancient authors, a year arises. The description of the death of Uncle Pliny the Younger in his letters to Tacitus is more like an excerpt from a work of art, which I will not cite here, it is already known. Let me just say that after the eruption of “79,” various sources cite up to eleven eruptions between the years 202 and 1140. But for the next 500 years, until the December eruption of 1631, there was no more or less reliable information about the eruptions of Vesuvius. It looks like the volcano, which was active with enviable regularity, suddenly calmed down, accumulating strength for as much as 500 years! Beginning in 1631, Vesuvius continued to disturb the inhabitants of Campania with its activity until the last eruption in 1944. Could it be that Pompeii died precisely as a result of this December eruption of 1631? Is there any documentary evidence of this relatively late natural disaster? Are there any further parallels with the above description of Pliny the Younger? It turns out that there is such evidence and there is quite a lot of it. The book Alcubierre, R., et al., Pompeianarum Antiquitatum, published in Naples in 1860, contains diaries of excavations for the period from 1748 to 1808. It, among other things, describes the artifact under inv.no. 16, discovered on August 16, 1763, in the form of a statue with an inscription attributed to Svedius Clemens, which mentions Pompeii and supposedly kept in the Naples Museum.
So, in fact, this statue is not there and no one knows anything about it. It is not in the museum's catalog of "ancient inscriptions" either. In addition, according to this book, the inscription was on the pedestal of some travertine statue, and in Pompeii today there is an ordinary stone on a raised platform in the middle of the road with the same text! How can this be? And like this. It was necessary for the millions of tourists who visit Pompeii every year to at least somehow “documentarily” confirm that the city they are striving to from all over the world is really the same Pompeii. Or maybe that originally, when Pompeii was excavated in the 18th century and wondered - what did we unearth? - a misunderstanding occurred, conscious or not, but a MISUNDERSTANDING, an ERROR and since then, unfortunately, all scientific works, dissertations, historical and near-historical opuses are based solely on this misunderstanding? The history of the excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum is a separate extensive topic that requires special detailed consideration. Therefore, here I will only touch on it lightly, without going into detail or critically analyzing the primary sources. I will only dwell on the key points, inconvenient for some researchers, which are hushed up in every possible way or, on the contrary, blurred out by adherents of the classical version of the death of Pompeii on August 24, 79 AD.
In the encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron, the famous papal architect-engineer Domenico Fontana is mentioned as the first involuntary discoverer of Pompeii, who, among other things, became famous for completing the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral in the Vatican, moving and installing the Egyptian obelisk on his main square and the construction of the Palazzo Reale in Naples. “In the Middle Ages, even the very place where Pompeii was located was forgotten, and for one and a half thousand years it hid unknown to anyone under the ash and later soil layers that covered it. In 1592, the architect D. Fontana, while constructing an underground canal that still exists today to deliver water from the Sarno River to Torre Annunziata, came across Pompeian ruins, but no attention was paid to them.” The aqueduct was commissioned, in the late 1500s, by Count Sarno, from the architect Domenico Fontana, with the purpose of supplying water to Torre Annunziata. From the beginning of the 1900s, it was used by peasants as an irrigation channel to irrigate fields and functioned until the 1960s, when the use of the canal ceased and it fell into disrepair. From these words we can conclude that the engineer Fontana was engaged in the production of mining tools work on laying a tunnel at some depth and, in the process of this work, came across the roofs and walls of houses buried under a multi-meter layer of ash in the city. It seems that there is nothing surprising here, unless you wonder how, purely technically, he managed to walk almost two kilometers in volcanic soil, which is not at all fragrant, emitting methane and carbon dioxide, without forced ventilation of the mine workings? On the Italian site Antikitera.net On February 26, 2004, an interesting note was published, which in turn refers to a publication on Culturalweb.it dated January 23 of the same year, which talks about the canal of the engineer Fontana, in particular the following: “When the canal was dug, it crossed (unbeknownst to anyone) Pompeii from the east, starting under the Sarno Gate and reaching the Street of the Tombs, in the western part of the city. On its way through the old city, it touched the temple of Isis, the temple of Eumachia, and passed under the forum and the temple of Apollo. Along the canal there were numerous wells and observation posts, which, in addition to providing light and air, made periodic cleaning of the canal possible.” It turns out that Domenico Fontana, conducting an underground gallery, 1764 meters long, through Pompeii Hill in 1592, managed to pass not just underground, but even under the foundations of buildings and fortress walls, seemingly built in the 1st century AD, that I didn’t touch or damage any of them on my way! The “numerous wells” should look especially interesting, which, given the multi-meter thickness of volcanic rocks that buried Pompeii, like the chimneys of the Titanic, should decorate the Pompeian landscape today. But are there any of these available?
On the road from Naples south to the Tora Annunziata, 15 kilometers from Naples, you can see a monument - an epitaph on the facade of the Villa Faraone Mennella to the dead as a result of the eruption of Vesuvius 1631 - two stone plates with text in Latin. On one of them, in the list of dead cities, along with RESINA and PORTICHI, the cities are mentioned POMPEII and HERCULANUM !!!
Even an ordinary tourist guide notes the obvious discrepancy between Pompeian artifacts and the 1st century AD, but, purely intuitively, compares them with the Middle Ages, where these artifacts fit very well. The very high level of fine art in Pompeii (frescoes, mosaics, statues), correlated with the high level of scientific achievements of the Renaissance, is surprising. During excavations, a sundial was found, divided into "uniform hours". That is, a device whose creation was a difficult task even in late Middle Ages. The famous mosaics of “ancient” Pompeii are strikingly similar in composition, color, and style to the frescoes of Raphael, Giulio Romano, that is, to the frescoes of the Renaissance. All this indicates extremely high level development of the city and its inhabitants.
Particularly striking is the amazing similarity, even in detail, of the composition of the Pompeii fresco “The Three Graces” and the much later Raphael. We see the same plot in the painting by Francesco del Cossa "The Triumph of Venus" 1476-1484, Peter Paul Rubens' "The Three Graces", c. 1640 and in a sculptural composition from Cyrene, by an unknown author, dating back to the 3rd century BC. For me personally, this causes surprise and questions that no one can really answer for me yet. I admit that there was a kind of canon among artists on how to depict grace, but not in detail? Was he ordered by the Pope? There is obvious plagiarism! Either Raphael copied a fresco in Pompeii after working with a shovel, or Raphael had a time machine!
“The use of identical details by Roman and Renaissance painters, common color schemes, plot parallels, general compositional plans, the presence in Pompeian frescoes of things that appeared only in the 15th - 17th centuries, the presence in Pompeian paintings of painting genres that were formed only in the Renaissance, as well as the presence of Christian motifs on the frescoes and mosaics indicates that both the Pompeii frescoes and the works of Renaissance artists are the work of people who lived at the same time, i.e. Pompeian frescoes, like the great works of Renaissance artists, were painted in the 15th - early 17th centuries.” - Vitas Narvydas, “Pompeian frescoes and the Renaissance: Confrontation”, Electronic almanac Art&Fact No. 1(5), 2007
When excavating Pompeii and Herculaneum, archaeologists did not expect to find written monuments made on soft materials - papyrus, linen or parchment. After all, during the volcanic eruption, everything that could burn died. But a miracle happened: in Pompeii, in the villa of Lucius Caecilius Jucunda, an intact chest was found, and in it there were about one and a half hundred inscribed ceremonies. One hundred twenty-seven of them have already been read. The rest are stuck together so tightly that it is impossible to separate them. At least for now. Unfortunately, those that were lucky enough to read turned out to be accounting documents. And in Herculaneum, in the 18th century, a whole library was found - one thousand eight hundred Greek papyri! Mainly the works of Philodemus. Most of them were found at the site of the so-called Villa of the Papyri. Only a small part has been read so far. As far as I know, this find was the first discovery of papyri at all. After this, papyri began to be found in Egypt and throughout the Mediterranean in large numbers. Noteworthy is the fact that papyrus, as a wild plant, has not been found in Egypt; even Napoleon, when he was there, looked for it unsuccessfully, but papyrus feels good in Sicily, not far from ancient Syracuse. Until the 20th century, there was a cooperative producing papyrus paper to meet the needs of tourists for “antique” souvenirs.
Pompeian instruments are practically indistinguishable in form and technique from modern ones, except that they are made of bronze. A corner with a perfect right angle, compasses, tweezers, dental instruments, scalpels... Pay attention to the thread of the gynecological instrument (Speculum uteris). Without a lathe? As far as I know, screws with square nuts appeared towards the end of the Renaissance, and they were made only by hand - with files or needle files. The first design of a machine for the production of screws was proposed in 1569 by Besson (France). But the watchmaker Hindley (England) put Besson’s idea into practice only in 1741.
The process of manufacturing a thin-walled wind instrument, its bell, wings, bending tubes is impossible not only without an appropriate level of technology development, but also without a certain tool and machine base. Yaroslav Kesler, in his article “Orchestra of Civilization,” argues that the formation of manufacturing technology musical instruments, which predetermined the emergence of modern musical culture, traditionally dating back to the 17th century. and little that has changed since then began no earlier than in the 16th century.
Almost exactly the same one can be purchased today at any plumbing store. Such cranes and larger valves can also be found “in the open air” in Pompeii. The valves, according to the description, are a sealed structure of three parts: a body, a bushing with a through hole and a cylindrical shut-off valve ground into it. It’s hard to imagine that this can be done with the help of primitive tools, “on the knee.” Pompeian taps were unregulated and acted as gate valves. The supply and main pipes were lead. By the way, in England, many old houses still have lead pipes, who don’t know. In general, the water supply system of Pompeii still evokes admiration today for its engineering sophistication.
Apart from bottles, perfume bottles, and colored glass of various shades, there are quite a lot of absolutely transparent thin-walled products in the museum’s display cases; the same glass vases are depicted on frescoes. Compared to Pompeii, other glass products that have survived to this day and dated back to the first millennium are not particularly transparent. All this is all the more surprising if you consider that the first transparent glass was produced in the mid-15th century in Venice, on the closed “restricted” island of glassblowers Murano, Angelo Barovir. The secret of its production for a long time after that was kept in Venice from competitors like the apple of their eye. Window panes of standardized sizes 45x44cm and 80x80cm were found in Herculaneum
This is not a plinth, this is a real standard brick measuring approx. 23x13x3 cm. There are also other sizes, special, for example, for making round columns. The brick is of high quality, quite homogeneous in its structure, practically does not delaminate, which indicates that the clay was thoroughly mixed and aged before firing. The firing itself was carried out at a high temperature of approx. 1000 C, the brick still “rings” when tapped. Pompeian brick was not made in a handicraft manner, such as the production of adobe in wooden forms. If you look closely, longitudinal stripes are noticeable on the side edges, which are usually formed during the manufacturing process of bricks using a belt press if the molding frame has burrs. The use of a belt molding press is also indicated by the complex wave shape of the Pompeii tiles.
A source where you can find even more evidence of falsification
Why didn't there exist ancient Rome?
Mysterious Pompeii, an ancient settlement that preserves the breath of Ancient Rome, today is a museum under open air. An extinct city, today it is coming back to life thanks to the efforts of archaeologists, albeit as a museum exhibit.
Pages of history
Until the eruption of Vesuvius swept away the city from the face of the earth, Pompeii was very highly developed and high-tech for its time settlement.
Pompeii is not quite a Roman city, as is commonly believed. It was founded in the 8th century BC. Oschi tribe - one of the ancient peoples of Italy. The name "Pompeii" from the ancient Oscan language can be translated as "five", the reason for this name lies in the fact that Pompei were founded on the site of five ancient Oscan settlements.
True, there is another version, more likely related to mythology: supposedly in these parts Hercules defeated a powerful opponent and organized a solemn procession in the city on this occasion (Pompe - this is how “Pompeii” is translated from the ancient Greek language).
In Italy it was at that time many Greek colonies, so a little later the Osskis adopted Greek culture and architecture. The latter is especially clearly visible: the first buildings were chaotic, the order of buildings was not respected, and later, under Hellenic influence, urban architecture acquired clearer outlines - strict rows of streets and rows of houses. Moreover, the Oskos did not even suspect that they were building their houses directly on solidified lava...
After numerous battles The Romans gained power over the city.
Pompeii has a very convenient location economically: at the foot of Vesuvius, on the Sarno River. This location allowed the city's residents to use the river for shipping and trade. Residents were engaged in the production of oils, wool and wines, which also contributed to trade and prosperity of the city. And the Appian Way, which passed through the city, was important for the economy and trade.
Gradually Pompei came under the rule of Rome and became a recreation center for noble Roman patricians. The city grew and developed...
Do you dream of visiting Florence, one of the most romantic cities in Italy? Then you should look at the main architectural structure of the city - Palazzo Vecchio. Detailed information.
Tragedy of the city
The first “alarm bell” rang in 62 AD, when the major earthquake. Many houses and temples were destroyed. But the city residents managed to restore everything in a short time and life again flowed along its usual course.
The peak occurred on 24 August 79. On this day, a strong eruption of the Vesuvius volcano occurred, subsequently the city was buried for centuries under a multi-meter layer of ash.
The day before, flakes of ash began to fall on the city, and there was so much of it that they had to constantly shake it off their clothes. The volcano was considered dormant for a long time, so at first none of the residents paid attention to the cloud of smoke and fire escaping from the vent.
Stones began to fall from the sky, and the ashes settled on the houses in such a thick layer that the roofs began to collapse, burying the people remaining in the premises.
More astute townspeople left Pompeii immediately after the first rainfall, and fled to nearby villages. The eruption lasted for about a day. The city was completely destroyed.
It was discovered by accident in the 17th century during the construction of a water pipeline. The honor of discovery belongs to Italian architect Domenico Fontana, who, while excavating, came across the remains of a wall and well-preserved frescoes near the river. Moreover for a long time they could not imagine that these pitiful remains were the ruins of the mighty Pompeii.
And only when a sign board was found(border pillar), it became clear that here the once majestic ancient Roman city was buried under layers of earth.
Full-fledged excavations began a century later, in the 17th century, and continue to this day, as well as scientific research.
For more information about the Pompeii tragedy and excavations, watch the video:
Sights and interesting places
On site today legendary city only remnants of its former grandeur can be seen. You can find the Pompei excavation site near Naples. Open-air museum city attracts many tourists every year.
Pompeii is not only a mass of interesting sights in Italy, but also unique witness to history. Due to the fact that the city was almost instantly covered with ash, all surviving buildings, frescoes, mosaics, sculptures and objects are very well preserved. So, what can you see today in the place where Pompeii is located?
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Forum.
This building can be called the heart of the ancient Roman city, its social and economic center. At first, on the site of the Forum there was only a trading area, then the market was significantly expanded, and residents began to gather at the market not only for shopping, but also for discussing city events.
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Lupanarium.
“A hot place” in the city, where townspeople came in search of carnal pleasures. The name itself is translated from Italian as “she-wolf” - it was with the help of a wolf-like howl that women of easy virtue attracted their clients. The priestesses of love of that time were quite easy to recognize - hair collected and raised at the back of the head, and a wide red belt on their clothes.
All rooms for love dates were painted with erotic frescoes. Today some of these frescoes can be seen in the Archaeological Museum of Naples. By the way, this was not the only brothel in the city (there were about 30 of them in total), but Lupanarium was the most famous.
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Amphitheater.
A large-scale structure on two levels was intended for gladiatorial fights and various spectacles. Only the outer walls and seats were preserved, but the steps were completely destroyed - they were made of wood and simply did not survive the eruption.
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Residential buildings.
All buildings and residential buildings are very well preserved, almost in their original form (if, of course, you make an allowance for the past tense). The interior decoration of the houses did not differ in aesthetics, but externally they were very richly decorated, painted with frescoes or decorated with mosaic patterns.
There were almost no windows in the houses (unlike the palaces and houses of rich nobles); they were replaced by narrow openings. There were no street signs either; the name of its owner was simply written on each house (some of these signs are kept in the Archaeological Museum). On the territory of each house there was a stone pool to collect rainwater (such water was considered sacred).
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Frescoes found during excavations.
They contain historical scenes and scenes of Roman entertainment. Almost all of them were transferred to the Naples Museum, and in the restored city you can only see skillfully made copies.
- In addition, you can also see Temple of Jupiter, Small Theater, Bolshoi Theater, Stabian Baths, triumphal arches and other surviving buildings of Pompeii.
During excavations it was found a lot of gold jewelry, ceramics. The ceramics were generally well preserved, although the designs and patterns on the pots and jugs were damaged by fire and time.
Several bakeries found – huge stoves, kitchen utensils and other equipment, as well as the so-called thermopolia - taverns. Rarely did any house in Pompeii have kitchens with ovens, so food was delivered from such thermopolia.
Opening hours, ticket prices
- During high season(from the beginning of April to the end of October) you can get to Pompei from 8.30 am, and the closing time is 7 pm (the ticket office closes at 5.30 pm, an hour and a half before closing).
- Low season(this time is from November to March) Pompeii can be seen from 8.30 (9.00) in the morning until 17.00 (the ticket office closes at 15.30).
- Ticket price – 13 euros. They can be purchased at the box office.
There, at the ticket office, you can pick up a guide map, otherwise it’s easy to get lost in all the intricacies of the ancient streets.
- An excursion to Pompeii can be combined with a visit to other ancient cities - Herculaneum, Boscoreale, Villa Stadia and others. In this case the ticket will cost at 22 euros (with discount).
- Groups of schoolchildren and students can visit Pompeii by appointment. None There are no restrictions on the number of groups here.
You can check ticket prices, find out about the schedule of excursions, and also get acquainted with other background information about Pompeii on the official website of the attraction - www.pompeiisites.org
There are no Russian-speaking guides here, and the guide map is offered in Italian or English. Therefore, you can print out information in advance on the Internet about the most significant objects and attractions of Pompeii, and already navigate on the spot, relying on this data.
The word “Pompeii” is known even to those who have never been to Italy in their lives. It has long become a symbol of human helplessness before the elemental power of nature. The death of a rich and populous Roman city, buried under the ashes of Mount Vesuvius, is one of the most impressive disasters in human history. Thanks to the famous painting by Karl Bryullov “The Last Day of Pompeii”, it seems like a bright tragic action from the classical theater, where people are like statues, and the elements are inevitable, like fate. Having visited Pompeii, you can touch another dimension of this history - more earthly and concrete.
Pompeii dates back to the 6th century BC. Legend claims that their founder was Hercules himself. In the 5th century, the sprawling port city on the Gulf of Naples became part of the Roman Empire. He was loved by the Roman nobility, who built many holiday villas here, and prospered and grew rich. The geographical location of the city seemed extremely successful: the Via Appia road, passing through Pompeii, connected Rome with the southern part of the country. But Vesuvius was nearby. August 24, 79 AD the volcano has awakened. The monstrous eruption destroyed Pompeii and two nearby cities - Herculaneum and Stabiae - in two days. More than two thousand inhabitants died in the rain of lava and ash in Pompeii alone.
The disaster served Pompeii in a strange way, destroying a thriving city while simultaneously preserving it for eternity. An 8-meter layer of ash “preserved” Pompeii for many centuries, so that at some point the city would appear in the very form in which it met its death. During archaeological excavations that began in the 18th century, streets and houses, household artifacts and objects of art were resurrected from oblivion. A story was emerging both about the horror of the ancient tragedy and about the everyday life that once seethed here. The fate of Pompeii shocked the imagination of Europeans: in dead city real pilgrimages of scientists, artists, and poets were organized.
This is not surprising: a trip to Pompeii is a real journey back in time. Here you can see all the attributes of an exemplary Roman city: cobblestone streets, streets with gutters, the remains of a forum, porticoes with columns, the Big and Small theaters, three municipal buildings, numerous baths and, of course, temples dedicated to various gods - from Jupiter to Isis. But perhaps the strongest impression is made by residential buildings with “telling” names: the Surgeon’s House with the medical instruments found in it, the Perfumer’s House, the House of the Tragic Poet, the House of the Faun, the Villa of Mysteries. It’s as if their owners left them yesterday. However, people and animals did not disappear without a trace: casts of their bodies made by scientists can be seen in those places where death overtook the unfortunate ones. There is also an archaeological museum, which houses objects found as a result of excavations.
Today, Pompeii is visited annually by more than 2.5 million tourists. Here, like nowhere else, you can feel the juxtaposition of eternity and decay, beauty and decay. The gentle sophistication of the frescoes on the walls of the houses (they are compared to paintings by Botticelli) is adjacent to the distorted poses of frozen bodies. And the silence of eternity reigns over everything, not disturbed even by the voices of visitors. And the silhouette of Vesuvius still rises above the city, as if recalling the fragility of this silence.
I remember as a child, seeing K. Bryullov’s painting “The Last Day of Pompeii”, I was greatly shocked. The huge one died in a matter of hours. Why? How? For what?
Our family managed to visit Pompeii only in November 2016. I will share my photos and videos with you. Let's try to understand the reasons for the tragic events.
The ancient Roman city of Pompeii in Italy was completely destroyed in 79. Buried under a multi-meter layer of ash and magma as a result of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
The death of Pompeii - why didn’t people leave the city?
It was one of the largest ancient cities, founded in the 6th century BC. Its favorable location on the trade route and fertile lands contributed to its economic prosperity.
Geologists say that the volcano was silent for 15 centuries. He warned people that he was waking up with a strong earthquake in 62, almost completely destroying buildings. But the residents did not move to new places, but began to rebuild it again. Without even suspecting the impending disaster.
And the cruel killer Vesuvius from a height of 1300 meters silently watched the human bustle and waited in the wings. And this hour came on August 24, 79.
Vesuvius warned in advance
A huge, rapidly growing brown cloud appeared above the volcano. At a height of many kilometers it spread out to the sides, covering the sky. This was accompanied by a terrible roar and underground shelves. Every hour, volcanic ash covered the ground with a layer of up to 20 cm.
Human factor
Part of the population managed to leave Pompeii on the first day. There remained stubborn people who did not want to leave their homes and slaves whom their owners left to guard their goods. They tried to hide in houses, not realizing that they were dooming themselves to death.
The roofs of houses collapsed under the weight of falling stones and ash.
The next day, a red-hot heavy avalanche of magma flowed from the volcano, destroying everything in its path. The air was saturated with hot suffocating gas and dust, and when it entered the lungs it turned into cement, people suffocated. A heavy downpour began.
Loose ash, mixed with water, rushed down the slopes in a hot mud stream. The residents, mad with fear, rushed to the sea, and those who fell were trampled by those running behind them. Those remaining on the streets were burned alive. On the third day, the clouds of dust cleared. The sun illuminated the terrible picture of the dead cities of Pompeii, Stabia and Herculaneum.
Reconstruction of the bodies of the dead
The buried city was discovered by accident in the 16th century. But excavations began only in the 18th century. The sudden and rapid death of Pompeii under a multi-meter layer of magma and ash preserved many houses with interior furnishings, frescoes, mosaics and interesting architecture.
During excavations, the empty cavities left by the bodies of the dead were filled with plaster and their dying poses were reconstructed.
In this way, up to 2,000 remains were recovered. It is believed that about 15 thousand people died during this disaster.
Currently, 75% of the restored excavations are open. Up to 2.5 million people a year come to see it in the open air.
The remains of an amphitheater for gladiator fights, residential buildings with intact furnishings, frescoes and mosaics have been discovered. Temples, baths, a large number of drinking establishments, brothels and images of the phallus in drawings, figurines and sculptures.
Punishment for...
In Ancient Rome, the phallus was considered a symbol of good luck and a talisman. His images were painted on the walls of various establishments and on street corners. During excavations, many figurines of the God of Fertility Priapus with a huge genital organ were found.
In 1819, all the objects and frescoes depicting sexual orgies, bestiality and sodomy (homosexuality) found in the ruins were collected in the Secret Cabin of the Archaeological Museum.
Until 2000, this collection was available for viewing only to a narrow circle of people belonging to high society. Now it is open in the Naples Museum, for everyone who wants to get acquainted with this side of the life of the Romans of that era.
Judging by the assortment and number of exhibits, brothels and drinking establishments, the residents were far from chastity and led a cheerful lifestyle. Maybe the disaster that occurred was a punishment?
Present tense
We saw this city on a gray rainy day. Our short amateur video will give you an idea of the destroyed city.
Vesuvius, the culprit of the terrible disaster, now looks quite peaceful and is again waiting in the wings. The longer he sleeps, the more catastrophic his awakening will be. The passing centuries have erased the memory of the past tragedy and people continue to settle in its vicinity.
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